MANUAL 

OF 

GEOGRAPHY 

WRIGHT 




Class 
Book 






CopightN 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



FIELD, LABORATORY, AND 
LIBRARY MANUAL 



IN 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



BY 



C. T. WRIGHT, Ph.B. 

Teacher of Physical, Geography, Union High School 
Redlands, California 



GINN & COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Conies Received 

AUG 17 »906 

opyri£iu E.itry 
CL X!'«c. No, 

' copy'b.' 



" 



Copyright, 190G, by 
C. T. WRIGHT 



ALL EIGHTS RESERVED 
66 7 






lir a t Iuh in m iDrrss 



GINN & COMPANY • PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

In offering this manual to the public the author wishes to 
express the hope that it may prove helpful to his fellow-teach- 
ers, and that teachers and pupils alike may get from it at least 
a portion of the pleasure that he has taken in working out its 
exercises. The manual consists of readings and exercises selected 
from those which he has used in his own classes in the high 
school. He hopes that they may be of value in guiding others 
in their first attempts at scientific investigation and research. 

Physical geography gives the student a broader outlook than 
any other science in the curriculum of secondary schools. It is 
a proper culmination of the nature study of the grammar school, 
and an appropriate introduction to the more technical and rigid 
sciences of the high school. Its value arises in part from the 
fact that it " touches nature " in so many places. Its many- 
sidedness and its alluring bypaths have tempted pupil and 
teacher alike. However enjoyable the physical side of it may 
be, it should not ba forgotten that it is geography. Its greatest 
value arises from the fact that it introduces the student to his 
geographical environment and suggests to him how he may 
utilize it. Commerce, history, and even sociology have paid 
their tribute to this study. The intimate and necessary relation 
that exists between physical geography and history is the theme 
of more than one recent and valuable book. In this manual 
economic phases have been emphasized throughout. 

In using our eyes we sometimes forget that we may use the 
eyes of others to our great pleasure and profit. In our attempts 
to study geography at first hand there is a temptation to neglect 
the library. While the author of this manual would be second 
to none in ascribinsf value to work done in the field and in the 



iv PREFACE 

laboratory, he believes that there is still a place for our old 
friend, the text-book. In order that the text-book may not be 
used slavishly, there have been called into requisition, in Part I 
of this manual, several of the latest texts and about fifty authori- 
tative and readable treatises on different phases of physical 
geography. To prevent desultory reading and to avoid the dis- 
appointment of seeking without finding, all citations have been 
made definite, indicating to the pupil where he is to begin his 
reading and where to conclude it. Lest the pupil should read 
much and remember little, there have been introduced " special 
terms," which may serve .as nuclei about which he may group 
the truths of the lesson. 

In the preparation of Part II of this manual it has been borne 
in mind that all " out of doors " is the real laboratory for the 
study of geography ; but, on the other hand, it has not been for- 
gotten that the average traveler usually carries a "Baedeker." 
The ability to read a landscape correctly may be of primary 
importance ; yet the ability to read a map correctly is invaluable. 
Therefore, in this manual much use has been made of the excel- 
lent and inexpensive maps of the Geological Survey, Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, Hydrographic Office, Weather Bureau, etc., 
at Washington. In those exercises requiring apparatus an 
attempt has been made to use only necessary and comparatively 
inexpensive pieces. While the author uses and recommends the 
use of many which are more complex and expensive, they are 
not referred to, partly because many schools are not now 
equipped with them, and partly because this is a pupil's guide 
and not a guide for the teacher. The wise teacher will use these 
pieces of apparatus, if available, in class exercises, and thus fur- 
ther whet the intellectual appetite of the pupil. 

First of all the author is indebted for inspiration and help- 
ful criticism to Principal Lewis B. Avery of the Union High 
School, Redlands, California. Many valuable suggestions have 
come from different members of the California Physical Geog- 
raphy Club, among whom should be mentioned Professor R. S. 



PREFACE v 

Holway, University of California ; Professor W. T. Skilling, 
State Normal School, San Diego ; Miss Mabel B. Pierson, High 
School, Pasadena; Mr. C. S. Dowries, High School, Berkeley; 
Professor James F. Chamberlain, State Normal School, Los 
Angeles ; and Mr. George L. Leslie, City Schools, Los Angeles. 
Dr. Harold W. Fairbanks, of Berkeley, California, has kindly 
consented to the reproduction of twelve photographs selected 
from his excellent series of lantern slides. 

The author wishes to acknowledge courtesies extended by 
Professors William Morris Davis, Ralph S. Tarr, Albert Perry 
Brigham, Charles R. Dryer, and Alexis E. Frye. 

For any defects in this manual the author alone is responsi- 
ble. Teachers will confer a favor if they will suggest im- 
provements. 

The author will be pleased to cooperate with teachers in the 
matter of furnishing lantern slides and other supplies. 

C. T. WRIGHT 
Redlands, California 

April, 1906 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



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CONTENTS 



PART I. LIBRARY .MANUAL 

Chapter Page 

I. The Earth among Planets .... 

II. The Atmosphere ...... 

III. Winds and Storms . • • . . 

IV. Climate 

V. The Structure of the Earth 

VI. Disintegration and Erosion .... 

VII. Rivers ........ 

VIII. Land Forms due to Other Agencies 
IX. Imperfect Drainage ...... 



X. Underground Waters 



6 
8 
13 
15 
19 
21 
25 
30 
32 



XL The Ocean .......... 34 

XII. Coast Forms 37 

XIII. Minerals and Rocks 39 

XIV. Weathering and Soils ........ 43 

XV. Plants, Animals, and Man 46 

PART II. FIELD AND LABORATORY MANUAL 

Exercise 

I. Magnitudes and Distances ....... 55 

II. The Oblateness of the Earth ...... 56 

III. The Direction of the Axis of the Earth's Rotation . . .58 

IV. Lengths of Day and Night ....... 59 

V. North and South Line . 60 

VI. The Apparent Movements of the Sun ..... 61 

VII. The Moon .64 

VIII. Latitude 65 

IX. Some Properties of the Atmosphere . . . . .66 

X. Constituents of the Atmosphere ...... 67 

XL Combustion and Oxidation ....... 68 

XII. Evaporation and Condensation ...... (i!) 

XIII. Humidity 70 

XIV. Light 74 

XV. Magnetism 76 

vii 



vm 



CONTENTS 



Exercise 




Page 


XVI. Isotherms .... 


• « 


77 


XVII. The Barometer 




. 83 


XVIII. Isobars 




83 


XIX. Observations of the Weather . 




. 86 






87 


XXI. Winds in a Cyclone 




. 88 


XXII. Areas of Precipitation 




89 


XXIII. Temperatures in Cyclones and A 


nticyclones 


. 90 


XXIV. Movements of Low Barometer in 


the United States 


91 


XXV. Weather Forecasting 




. 92 


XXVI. Rainfall . . . 




93 


XXVII. Zones of Climate . . ■ . 




. 96 


XXVIII. Elevations and Depressions of the Earth's Surface di 


•awn 


to Scale .... 




98 


XXIX. Contour Lines .... 




. 99 


XXX. Contour Maps 




101 


XXXI. The Weathering of Rocks 




. 102 


XXXII. The Assorting Power of Water 




105 


XXXIII. Examination of Rock Waste . 




. 105 


XXXIV. A Waterfall 




106 


XXXV. River Flood Plains . 




. 107 


XXXVI. Meanders .... 




110 


XXXVII. Alluvial Cones 




. 112 


XXXVIII. A Region in Youth . 




114 


XXXIX. A Region in Maturity 




. 117 


XL. A Region in Old Age . 




119 


XLI. The Life History of a River 




. 120 


XLII. The Drainage Areas of the United States . 


120 


XLIII. The Migration of Divides 




. 120 


XLIV. Specific Gravity . 




122 


XLV. Volcanic Rocks 




. 123 


XL VI. Volcanic Peaks, Plateaus, and Necks . 


123 


XLVII. A Crater 




. 126 


XLVIII. Glaciers .... 




127 


XLIX. Topographic Forms due to Glaciation 


. 128 






131 












135 


LIIL Veins 




. 137 


LIV. Density and Temperature of Sea Water . 


139 


LV. Tides 




140 






142 



CONTEXTS 



IX 



Exercise 

LVIL Icebergs .... 
LVIII. The Sea and Man . 
LIX. Headlands, Beaches, Sea Caves 
LX. Barrier Beaches 
LXI. Drowned and Elevated Coasts 
LXII. Harbors ..... 
LXIII. Economic Minerals and Ores 
LXIV. Limestone .... 

LXV. Coal 

LXVI. Granite ..... 
LXVII. Fragmental Rocks 
LXVIII. Building Stone ... 
LXIX. Decomposing Agents . 
LXX. Irrigation .... 



Page 
.111 

145 
. 148 

150 
. 152 

154 
. 155 

156 
. 157 

159 
. 1G0 

1G3 
. 164 

165 



APPENDIX 

List of. Text-Books 167 

List of Reference Books . . . . . . . .167 

List of Government Maps ......... 170 

List of Apparatus and Supplies ....... 172 

Index 17? 



NOTEBOOK 



Instructions to Pupils ..... 

Blank paper, cross-section paper, and outline maps 



ISO 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fie Page 

1. Tlie Clinometer .......... (il 

2. A Bar Magnet (mounted) ....... 7G 

3. Isothermal Lines of the World for July . . . . .79 

4. Isothermal Lh>es of the World for January .... 81 

5. Average Annual Rainfall of the World . . . . .91 

6. Annual Range of Temperature ...... 97 

7. A Hypsometric Map of the United States . . between 98 and 99 

8. A Landscape .......... 100 

9. Hachure Map of the Same Region ...... 100 

1(1. Contour Map of the Same Region ....... 101 

11. A Profile from Contour Mai 101 

12. A Contour Map of San Pedro Hill, California . . . 103 
l'-\. Apparatus for showing the Effect of Heat on Iron . . . 104 
1 1. The Flood Plain of the Merced River, California . . . 109 

15. A D6bris Fan at Glenwood Springs, Colorado . . . .113 

16. A Terrace cut by the Santa Ana River, California . . . 115 

17. The Canyon of the Yellowstone . . . . . . .lit! 

18. Mud Cracks in the Bed of an Intermittent Stream . . . 124 

19. Columns of Basalt, North Fork of San Joaquin River . . . 125 

20. Section of a Glacial Moraine . . 129 

21. Belts of Vegetation about a Pond . . . . . .130 

22. Bear Lake, showing no Zones of Vegetation . . . .132 

23. Map of the Ancient Lake Bonneville ...... 133 

24. Map of the Bed of the Ancient Salton Sea ... . 134 

25. Contour Map of the Dead Sea . . . . . . .135 

26. A Beaker arranged for the Formation of Crystals . . . 136 

27. A Bottle and Siphon arranged for the Formation of Stalactites . 137 

28. A Rock with Intersecting Veins ...... 138 

29. Winds of the World for January ...... 141 

30. Chart of Ocean Currents ....... 143 

xi 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. Page 

31. Avalon Bay, Santa Catalina Island, California .... 146 

32. A Rocky Headland 147 

33. Sea Caves at La Jolla, California . . . . . 148 

34. An Arch cut by Waves 149 

35. Sand Reefs off the Coast of North Carolina . . . . .150' 

36. Sand Reefs off the Coast of Texas . . . . . .151 

37. Terraces cut by the Sea at Point San Pedro, California . .152 

38. A Double Pebbly Beach 153 

39. A Church built of Coral 156 

40. A Petrified Tree 158 

41. A Young Tree growing from a Crack in Granite . . . 161 

42. A Weir on the Truckee River, Nevada ..... 161 

43. A Flume near Redlands, California . . . . . .162 

44. A Laboratory for Physical Geography . . . . .166 

45. Pupils' Work Table for Physical Geography . . . .169 

46. Teacher's Cabinet Table for Physical Geography . . . 171 

Five outline maps of the United States, showing stations of the United States 
Weather Bureau, follow the text. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Part I 
LIBRARY MANUAL 



LIBRARY MANUAL 

CHAPTER I 
THE EARTH AMONG PLANETS 

1. THE SOLAR SYSTEM 
EXERCISE I. Magnitudes and Distances 

Text-books. 1 Davis, 8-9. Davis Ele., 11-14. Gilbert and Brigham, 
17-18. Redway, 9-12. Tarr, 3-6, 9-10. 

Reference books. 2 Davis, Elementary Meteorology: 2-3 a , 8 The neb- 
ular hypothesis. 

Fairbanks, Hocks and Minerals: 13-17, The beginning of the 
earth. 

Newcomb, Elements of Astronomy: 32-34, The earth as a planet; 
153-156, Venus ; 156-159, Mars ; 160-161, The asteroids ; 162-167, 
Jupiter ; 167-171, Saturn ; 172-175, Uranus and Neptune ; 176- 
186, Comets; 187-190, Meteors. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 33 c -39 a , The nebular 
hypothesis. 

Young, Lessons in Astronomy: 204-208, Mercury; 209-214, 
Venus; 215-224, Mars; 225-230, The asteroids; 232-238, Jupi- 
ter ; 239-245, Saturn ; 215-250, Uranus and Neptune ; 348-353, 
Cosmogony. 

Special terms. Star, planet, satellite, asteroid, orbit, circle, ellipse, 
diameter, radius, solar system. 

1 See List of Text-Books in Appendix. 

2 See List of Reference Books in Appendix. 

3 Small letters appearing at the right of the figures indicate parts of pages, 
as follows : a, first half of page ; ft, second half of page ; c, beginning near the 
bottom of the page. 



4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

2. THE FORM OF THE EARTH 
EXERCISE II. The Oblateness of the Earth 

Text-books. Davis, 10-14. Davis Ele., 1-6. Dryer, 9-12. Gilbert 
and Brigham, 1-2. Red way, 12-13. Tarr, 1-3. 

Reference books. Newcornb, Elements of Astronomy: 17-19, 
Change of horizon as we travel ; 80-89, Gravitation. 

Young, Lessons in Astronomy: 78-81, Form, size, and measure- 
ment of the earth ; 84 c -86 a , Effects of the earth's rotation on its form. 

Special terms. Horizon, curved surface, uniformly curved surface, 
plane surface, sphere, spheroid, oblate spheroid, eclipse. 

3. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH 
EXERCISE III. The Direction of the Axis of Rotation 

Text-books. Davis, 15-16. Davis Ele., 6-8. Dryer, 13-18. Gil- 
bert and Brigham, 18-20. Redway, 13-14. Tarr, 6-9. 

Reference books. Young, Lessons in Astronomy : 81-82, The rota- 
tion of the earth ; 83-84, Invariability of the earth's rotation ; 95, 
Changes in the earth's orbit. 

Special terms. Apparent path of the sun, revolution, rotation, 
axis, cardinal points, up, down, zenith, nadir, antipodes, light, 
shadow, day, year, gravitation, centrifugal force. 

4. INCLINATION OF THE EARTH'S AXIS 
EXERCISE IV. Lengths of Day and Night 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 46-52. Dryer, 19-22. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 20-25. Redway, 14. Tarr, 397-401. 

Reference books. Newcomb, Elements of Astronomy : 23-28, Diur-: 
nal motions in different latitudes ; 34-37, Motions and seasons. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology: 22-24, Inclination of the earth's 
axis of rotation. 

Young, Lessons in Astronomy: 95-97, Seasons; 98-99, Effects of 
inclination on temperature. 



THE EARTH AMONG PLANETS 5 

Special terms. Parallel, horizontal, perpendicular, vertical, pole 
star, plane of orbit, inclination, great circle, small circle, Tropic of 
Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle, Antarctic Circle, zone, 
width of zone, equinox, solstice, season. 

5. THE SUN 
EXERCISE V. North and South Line. VI. The Apparent Movements of the Sun 

Reference books. Newcomb, Elements of Astronomy : 37-41, Appar- 
ent motion of the sun ; 103-111, The sun. 

Young, Lessons in Astronomy : 134-138, The sun's surface; 138- 
144. Sun spots; 156-161, Chromosphere, prominences, corona; 
166-169, The heat of the sun. 

6. THE MOON 
EXERCISE VII. The Moon 

Text-books. Redway, 11 (picture). Tarr, 9 (picture). 

Reference books. Newcomb, Elements of Astronomy : 112-116, Dis- 
tance, size, and aspects of the moon ; 118-120, The moon's phases 
and rotation ; 123-125, Eclipses of the moon ; 126-131, Eclipses of 
the sun. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth: 89 c -92, The craters of the moon. 

Young, Lessons in Astronomy : 113-114, Rotation of. the moon; 
114-116, Phases of the moon; 116-117, Earthshine on the moon; 
117-118, Absence of air and water on the moon ; 118-119, Light 
and heat of the moon ; 120-125, Telescopic appearance and surface 
structure; 173-175, Lunar eclipses ; 175-179, Eclipses of the sun. 

Special terms. Phase, eclipse, reflection. 

7. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 

EXERCISE VIII. Latitude 

Text-books. Davis, 388-393. Davis Ele.,' 8-11. Dryer, 23-25. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 2-4. Tarr, 402-405. 



6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Reference books. Newcomb, Elements of Astronomy : 52-55, Longi- 
tude and time ; 90-97, Measurements of the earth. 

Special terms. Latitude, longitude, equator, prime meridian, Mer- 
cator's projection, conical projection, stereographic projection. 



CHAPTER II 

THE ATMOSPHERE 

8. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE 

EXERCISE IX. Some Properties of the Atmosphere. X. Constituents of the 
Atmosphere. XI. Combustion and Oxidation 

Text-books. Davis, 22-26. Davis Ele., 23-24, 27-29. Dryer, 
273-279. Gilbert and Brigham, 223-226. Redway, 214-216. Tarr, 
229-232. 

Reference books. Davis, Elementary Meteorology : 3-4, Evolution 
and future of the atmosphere ; 4-5, Composition of the atmosphere ; 
6-7, Oxygen and carbonic acid as related to plants and animals ; 
7 b -8, Economic aspects of the atmosphere ; 13 b -14, Height of the 
atmosphere. 

Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals: 119-121, The work of oxygen ; 
122-125, Carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 204 c -209, Gases in the atmosphere. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 98-99, Composition and 
height of the atmosphere. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 7-9, Constituents of the air. 

Special terms. Weight, elasticity, transparency, pressure, density, 
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide. 

9. HUMIDITY, EVAPORATION, CONDENSATION 

EXERCISE XII. Evaporation and Condensation. XIII. Humidity 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 60-62. Dryer, 280-282. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 226-227. Redway, 231-233. Tarr, 244-245. 



THE ATMOSPHERE 7 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather : 66-72, Humid- 
ity, or moisture ; 227, The thermometer ; 227 c -231, The hygrometer. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 156 b -159 a , Evaporation 
and condensation. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology: 31-32, Thermometers; 118-121, 
Moisture of the atmosphere ; 122-124, Humidity ; 163-165, Evap- 
oration. 

Special terms. Water vapor, evaporation, humidity, relative 
humidity, absolute humidity, thermometer, wet bulb thermometer, 
hygrometer, saturation, condensation, precipitation. 



10. DEW. FROST, FOG, CLOUDS 

Text-books. Davis, 47, 403-404. Davis Ele., 61-64. Dryer, 282- 
286. Gilbert and Brigham, 227-230. Eedway, 233-238. Tarr, 
246-248. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather: 73-91, Dew, 
fog, cloud. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 159-164, Dew, clouds. 

Waldo, Elejnentary Meteorology : 129-135% Clouds'; 162, Dew, 
frost. 

11. RAIN, SNOW, HAIL 

Text-books. Davis, 45. Davis Ele., 38-39, 70. Dryer, 285, 327. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 230-231. Eedway, 238, 242-243. Tarr, 
249-250. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather : 92-98, Precipi- 
tation : rain and snow ; 166-173, Storms of ice, sleet, ball snow, 
and hail. 

Muir, Mountains of California : 41-47, Snow banners from moun- 
tain peaks ; 123, Snow buries lakes in winter ; 38, Snow and sludge 
bridge a stream in winter. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 207 b -208, Snow as a pro- 
tective covering. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 142-144, Rain ; 159-161, Hail, 
snow. 



8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

12. LIGHT 
EXERCISE XIV. Light 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 27, 30, 63, 66. Gilbert and Brigham, 237. 
Redway, 277-281. Tarr, 232-233. 

Reference books. Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 166-169, Re- 
fraction, reflection, diffraction ; 169, Mirage ; 170-171 a , Colors of 
the sky ; 171-174 a , Coronas and halos ; 174 b -175 a , Rainbows. 

Special terms. Reflection, refraction, diffraction, spectrum, rain- 
bow, halo, corona, mirage. 

13. MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY 
EXERCISE XV. Magnetism 

Text-books. Davis, 398-399. Davis Ele., 17-19. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 274-278. Redway, 272-277. Tarr, 418-419. 

Reference books. Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 168, 
Aurora borealis. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology: 175-179, Atmospheric elec- 
tricity. 



CHAPTER III 

WINDS AND STORMS 

14. INSOLATION, TEMPERATURE, ISOTHERMS 

EXERCISE XVI. Isotherms 

Text-books. Davis, 27-28. Davis Ele., 31-35. Dryer, 293-300. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 238-252. 

Reference books. Davis, Elementary Meteorology : 18, Radiation 
from the sun. 

Dodge, Header in Physical Geography : 176-180, Temperature. 

Harrington, About the Weather: 60-65, The temperature of the 
air ; 187-193, The weather progress through the day and year. 



WINDS AND STORMS 9 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 25 b -30, Insolation ; 31-35, 
The thermometer ; 36-39, Regular diurnal change of temperature ; 
40, Average daily temperature ; 50-58, Isotherms. 



15. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 
EXERCISE XVII. The Barometer. XVIII. Isobars 

Text-books. Davis, 23-24. Davis Ele., 24-27. Dryer, 301-304. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 253-256. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather: 33-40, The 
pressure of the air and how it is measured ; 41-47, Changes in the 
pressure of the air ; 223-227 a , Barometers. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 13-11 , Atmospheric pressure 
and the barometer. 

Special terms. Weight, pressure, barometer, isobar, low barom- 
eter, high barometer. 

16. GENERAL MOVEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 
EXERCISE XIX. Observations of the Weather. XX. Prevailing Winds 

Text-books. Davis, 29-33. Davis Ele., 35-38, 53-58. Dryer, 287- 
292, 306-311. Gilbert and Brigham, 256-258, 266-268. Redway, 
219-220. Tarr, 258-262. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 185- 
188, Winds. 

Harrington, About the Weather: 48-55, Winds — their kinds and 
distribution ; 56-59, Measurement of the wind. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 212-222, Winds. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology: 56-61, Air; 98-101, General 
movements of the atmosphere. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 101-106 a , Currents of 
the air. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology: 101-104, Movements of the 
atmosphere ; 187-191, General circulation of the atmosphere. 



10 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

17. TRADE WINDS 

Text-books. Davis, 30. Davis Ele., 39-44. Dryer, 306. Gilbert 
and Brigham, 259-260. Redway, 218. Tarr, 259-260. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather : 136-141, Effects 
of the earth's rotation upon the direction of the winds. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 101-102, Trade winds. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 195 c -198 a , Effect of the earth's 
rotation on air currents ; 208-212, Trade winds, monsoons, doldrums. 



18. CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES 

EXERCISE XXI. Winds in a Cyclone. XXII. Areas of Precipitation. 
XXIII. Temperatures in Cyclones and Anticyclones 

Text-books. Davis, 33-34. Davis Ele., 44-46, 74-81. Dryer, 304- 
306, 312-317. Gilbert and Brigham, 258-259. Reclway, 248-250. 
Tarr, 262-267. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather: 99-109, General 
storms, cyclones, or lows ; 110-116, Condensation in a cyclone ; 128- 
135, The weather brought by the cyclone; 142-147, Anticyclones, 
or highs. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 246-250, Cyclones ; 250-255, Oceanic 
cyclones. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Eartli's History : 111-112, Cyclones. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 216-227% Cyclones ; 234 c -240, 
Anticyclones. 



19. MOVEMENTS OF LOW BAROMETER IN THE 
UNITED STATES 

EXERCISE XXIV. Movements of Low Barometer in the United States 

Text-books. Davis, 49 c -51. Davis Ele., 79. Dryer, 317-318, 343. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 260. Redway, 260. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather : 117-127, Cyclones 
travel eastward. 



WINDS AND STORMS 11 

20. HURRICANES. — TROPICAL CYCLONES 

Text-books. Davis, 38-40. Davis Ele., 67-69. Dryer, 318-321. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 265-266. Redway, 250. Tarr, 269-271. 
Reference books. Russell, North America : 209-212, Hurricanes. 
Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 106 b -110, Hurricanes. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 229-230, Hurricanes and 
typhoons. 

21. WEATHER FORECASTING 

EXERCISE XXV. Weather Forecasting 

Text-books. Davis, 52. Davis Ele., 81-82. Gilbert and Brigham, 
268-269. Redway, 259-261. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather : xiii-xvi, Weather 
prediction is a science; 17-32, Economic aspects of the weather; 
203-210, Weather predictions as a remedy against weather injuries ; 
211-222, The progress of knowledge of the weather. 

Garriott, Weather Folk-Lore and Local Weather Signs: 5-28, 
Weather folk-lore ; 29-47, Long-range weather forecasts ; 49-153, 
Local weather signs ; Charts I-XXI, Winds, clouds, barometric 
pressure. 

Garriott, Long-Range Weather Forecasts: 3-4, Letter of trans- 
mittal and general statement ; 7-10, Verification of long-range 
weather forecasts ; 11-31, The planetary equinoxes ; 37-68, Dis- 
cussion of long-range weather forecasts. 

Kenealy, Weather Bureau Stations a/al their Duties: 109-110, 
Origin and development of the meteorological service; 110 b -112 a , 
The daily weather forecasts ; 115-120, The duties performed at the 
stations. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology: 276-282 a , Weather maps; 
282 b -292, Weather predictions. 

22. TORNADOES 

Text-books. Davis, 34. Davis Ele., 66-67. Dryer, 323-325. Gil- 
bert and Brigham, 265. Redway, 255-259. Tarr, 267-269. 



12 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather : 156-165, Tor- 
nadoes or intense local whirls. 

Russell, North America: 207-208, Tornadoes. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 234-246, Tornadoes. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 112 b -115, Tornadoes ; 
115 b -117 a , Waterspouts. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 130-132, Violent storms of North 
America. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 241-249, Tornadoes ; 259 b -261, 
Spouts. 

23. THUNDERSTORMS 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 65. Dryer, 325-326. Gilbert and Brig- 
ham, 264-265. Reclway, 271. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather: 174-179, Thun- 
derstorms and cloud-bursts. 

Russell, North America : 206-207, Thunderstorms. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 164 b -167 a , Thunderstorms. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 249 c -259, Thunderstorms. 

24. LOCAL WINDS 

Text-books. Davis, 44. Davis Ele., 58-60. Gilbert and Brigham, 
262-264. Redway, 222-224. Tarr, 256-257. 

Reference books. Harrington, About the Weather : 148-155, " Be- 
twixt and between weather"; 194-202, Local influences of the 
winds. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 223-226, Land and sea breezes. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 118 b -121 a , Land and sea 
breezes. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 262-263, Periodic local winds; 
263 b -268, Miscellaneous winds. 



CLIMATE 13 

CHAPTER IV 

CLIMATE 

25. FACTORS OF CLIMATE 

Text-books. Davis, 297-298. Dryer, 33.5-336. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 270. Redway, 287-290. Tarr, 275-279. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 171-175, 
Weather and climate. 

Moore, Climate, Its Physical Basis and Controlling Factors: 7, 
Weather and climate ; 7-10, Basis of climate. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology: 269-275, Weather conditions; 
293-301, Climatic conditions. 

26. RAINFALL 
EXERCISE XXVI. Rainfall 

Text-books. Davis, 45-47. Davis Ele., 70-74. Dryer, 327-334. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 231-236. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 188-193, 
Moisture and rainfall. 

Henry, Average Annual^ Precipitation in the United States: 207- 
213, Data for the period 1871 to 1901, with two maps. 

AValdo, Elementary Meteorology : 148-156, Geographical distribu- 
tion of annual rainfall. 

27. ZOXES OF CLIMATE 
EXERCISE XXVII. Zones of Climate 

Text-books. Davis, 52-53. Davis Ele., 82-85. Dryer, 336-348. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 246-250. Redway, 291-298. Tarr, 279-289. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 180-184, 
Zones and heat belts ; 194-197, Seasons and climate in different 
parts of the world. 



14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Russell, North America: 186-191, The climate of Mexico and 
Central America ; 191-194, The climate of the Atlantic and Gulf 
states; 194-201, The climate of central North America; 201-203, 
The climate of northern North America. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 301 c -306, Climatic zones ; 307- 
312, Climates of the continents. 

28. CHANGES OF CLIMATE 

Text-books. Davis, 298. Davis Ele., 288-290. 

Reference books. Moore, Climate, Its Physical Basis and Con- 
trolling Factors : 10-15, Variations in climate. 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 48, Long-period temperature 
oscillations. 

29. CHANGES OF CLIMATE IN PAST GEOLOGICAL AGES 

Text-books. Davis, 330-333. Gilbert and Brigham, 143-146. 
Redway, 290-291. Tarr, 147. 

Reference books. Jordan, Science Sketches : 224-231, The story of 
a stone. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 46-55, Coal and the coal age. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth' 's History : 235, Warm weather' at 
the poles ; 244 b -247 a , Causes of a glacial period. 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States: 326-331, Conditions 
existing in Carboniferous times. 

30. CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 

Text-books. Dryer, 341-346. Gilbert and Brigham, 270-272. 
Tarr, 291-293. 

Reference books. Fairbanks, Western United States : 249-258, The 
climate of the Pacific coast. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 123-130, Climate of North 
America; 169-171, The frozen north; 171 c -174 a , The arid regions ; 
174-176 a , North America compared with other continents ; 176- 
178, Central United States ; 178 c -183, Atlantic and Pacific coasts 
compared. 



THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 15 

Waldo, Elementary Meteorology : 313-321, Climatic regions of 
the United States ; 322-335, Geographical distribution of temper- 
ature in the United States ; 335-354, Geographical distribution of 
rainfall and humidity ; 355-363, Geographical distribution of winds 
in the United States. 

81. RELATION OF CLIMATE TO LIFE 

Text-books. Davis, 1-7, 5G. Davis Ele., 349-364. Dryer, 390. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 189-193, 359-366. 

Reference books. Moore, Climate, Its Physical Basis and Con- 
trolling Factors: 15-19, Economic aspects of climate. 

Shaler, Story of Oar Continent : 2-6, Relations of climate to life. 

CHAPTER V 
THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 

32. THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 15-17. Dryer, 26-29. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 4-5. Redway, 20-22. Tarr, 13-19. 

Reference books. Davis, Elementary Meteorology .- 9-10 a , The geo- 
sphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. 

Dodge, Header in Physical Geography: 4-9, Our relation to the 
world as a whole. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 111-116, The earth in its 
interior. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 117-124, 
Imprisoned heat. 

Special terms. Sphere, centrosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, 
atmosphere, molten mass, density, crust of the earth. 

33. THE LAND 

EXERCISE XXVIII. Elevations and Depressions of the Earth's Surface drawn 

to Scale ' 

Text-books. Davis, 93-95. Davis Ele., 129-139. Dryer, 38-46. 
Tarr, 19 b -28. 



16 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 10-17, 
The larger features of the continents. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 94-99, The ocean trough ; 
185-188, Physiognomy of continents. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth 's History : 82 b -84, Height, area, and 
distribution of the land. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 76-78 a , Outlines of North America ; 
148-150, The continental shelf of North America. 

Special terms. Coastal shelf, hemisphere, great circle, pole of great 
circle, land hemisphere. 

34. SLOW MOVEMENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST 

Text-books. Davis, 95-97. Davis Ele., 132. Dryer, 46-48. Gil- 
bert and Brigham, 10-12. Redway, 23-25. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History : 114 b -115 a , Tilting of the basin of the Great Lakes. 

Russell, Rivers of JSforth America : 179 b -180 a , Terraces of the 
Colorado river due to elevation of land. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth: 1-9, Upgrowth of the continents. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 141-145, Slow vertical movements. 

Shaler, Sea and Land : 169-173, Slow rising and falling of the 
land. 

Special terms. Sedimentary rock, stratum, strata, fossil, lateral 
pressure. 

35. CAUSES OF MOUNTAINS 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 177-178. Dryer, 190-193. Redway, 
65-69. Tarr, 93-99. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Rocks : 166-177, 
Folds ; 180-188, Faults. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 144-149, Mountains. 

Fairbanks, Western United States : 50-59, Earthquakes and moun- 
tain building. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 44-49, What a mountain 
teaches ; 188-194, Physiognomy of mountains ; 202-203, Physi- 
ognomy of rock masses. 



THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 17 

Shaler, First Book in Geology: 107-112, Folds. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth' 's History : 85-91, Causes and char- 
acteristics of mountains. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 324-328, Wrinkling of the earth's 
crust, contraction theory. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 139-145, 
How the mountain framework is reared. 

Special terms. Lateral pressure, weight of sediment, fold, anti- 
cline, syncline, fault, degradation, erosion. 

36. KINDS OF MOUNTAINS 

Text-books. Davis, 161-171. Davis Ele., 178-185. Dryer, 178- 
179, 181-183. Gilbert and Brigham, 174-181. Tarr, 100-101. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History : 257-259, 268-272, The Rocky mountains ; 287-289, The 
mountains of the Pacific coast. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography: 149-150, Kinds of 
mountains. 

Muir, Mountains of California : Chapter I, General description 
of the Sierra Nevada. 

Russell, North America : 74-82, The Appalachian mountains ; 
122-131, The Rocky mountains ; 147-158, The Sierra Nevada and 
Cascade mountains. 

Special terms. Folded mountains, mountains by faulting, block 
mountains. 

37. LIFE HISTORY OF MOUNTAINS 

Text-books. Davis, 172-175, 187-197. Davis Ele., 185-188, 204- 
212. Dryer, 183-190. Gilbert and Brigham, 182-185. Redway, 
69-70. Tarr, 101-103. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography: 150-153, 
Aging of mountains. 

Special terms. Dissection, relict, subdued, monadnock. 



18 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY MANUAL 

38. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF MOUNTAINS 

Text-books. Davis, 175-178, 184-186. Davis Ele., 188-191, 204, 
35-7-359. Gilbert and Brigham, 188-195. Eedway, 72-75. Tarr, 
105-109. 

Special terms. Tree line, snow line, barrier, pass, sentinel. 



39. COASTAL PLAINS 

Text-books. Davis, 117-136. Davis Ele., 141-158. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 151-155. Tarr, 72-76. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History: 70-75, The Atlantic coastal plain; 173-180, The Atlantic 
coastal plain from Virginia to Florida. 

Russell, North America: 62-73, Coastal plains of North America ; 
94-99, The Gulf plains. 

40. PLAINS AND PLATEAUS 

Text-books. Davis, 139-150. Davis Ele., 158-170. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 155-167. Redway, 56-65. Tarr, 76-85. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History : 148-155, Description of the prairies ; 230-239, The Great 
Plains. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 137-143, Plains and 
plateaus. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 194-196, Physiognomy of 
plateaus. 

Russell, North America : 250-253, Prairies, treeless plains, and 
plateaus. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 121-123, Prairies of North 
America. 

Special terms. Plain, plateau, base level of erosion, coastal plain, 
lacustrine plain, alluvial plain. 



DISINTEGRATION AND EROSION 19 

41. REPRESENTATION OF RELIEF 
EXERCISE XXIX. Contour Lines. XXX. Contour Maps 

Text-books. Davis, 393-397. Dryer, 48-53. Gilbert and Brig- 
ham, 14-16. Tarr, 428-430. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History: 332-338, The work of the U.S. Geological Survey. 

Topographic Atlas of the U.S. Geological Survey, Folios 1 and 2 : 
1, Introduction and Topographic map. 

Topographic maps of U.S. Geological Survey : Printed matter 
on back of map. 

Special terms. Hachures, contour, profile. 



CHAPTER VI 

DISINTEGRATION AND EROSION 

42. DISINTEGRATION OF ROCK 

EXERCISE XXXI. The Weathering of Rocks 

Text-books. Davis, 99-105, 265-2G8. Davis Ele., 134-138. 
Dryer, 58-60. Tarr, 38-42. 

Reference books. Dodge, Header in Physical Geography : 69-73, 
Weathering; 120-121, Effects of cold and frost on rocks. 

Jordan, Science Sketches: 232-255, An ascent of the Matterhorn. 

Russell, Rivers of North America: 2-3, Mechanical disintegra- 
tion ; 236-240, Vegetation hastens weathering. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 3 b -4, Frost as a weathering agent ; 
21 b -23, Oxygen, acids, worms, roots as weathering agents. 

Special. terms. Disintegrate, oxidize. 

43. RESIDUAL SOIL, CREEP, TALUS 

Text-books. Davis, 268-275. Davis Ele., 163-164, 196-197. 
Dryer, 168. Tarr, 42-46. 



20 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Reference books. Russell, Rivers of North America: 13-16 a , How 
rivers obtain their loads. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth" 1 s History : 322 a , Residual soil. 
Special terms. Mantle rock, residual soil, creep, talus. 

44. THE LOAD OF A STREAM 
EXERCISE XXXH. The Assorting Power of Water 

Text-books. Dryer, 61-65. Gilbert and Brigham, 31-35. Redway, 
107-109. Tarr, 50-52. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Rocks : 19-23, 
Deposition. 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 20-22, Transportation of mate- 
rial ; 240-244, Driftwood. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 146-151, Velocity as related to car- 
rying power. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 20-21, Assorting power of run- 
ning water. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 174-175, Transportation of sediment. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 51-52, Trans- 
porting and assorting power of running water ; 57-60, Source and 
journey of sediments. 

Special terms. Suspension, velocity, sediment, silt. 

45. CORRASION AND ABRASION 
EXERCISE XXXIII. Examination of Rock Waste 

Text-books. Dryer, 65-67. Tarr, 52-53. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Rocks : 14-19, 
Mechanical erosion. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 81-88, Erosive work of 
running water. 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 28-32, Corrasion. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 1-4, Abrasion of river pebbles ; 
12-19, Sand. 

Special terms. Corrasion, abrasion, erosion. 



RIVERS 21 

46. MESAS, BUTTES, BAD LANDS 

Text-books. Davis, 150-152, 219 b -221. Davis Ele., 171-175. 
Dryer, 214-216. Gilbert and Brigham, 89-98. Tarr, 82-83. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Rocks : 198-200, 
Table mountains. 



CHAPTER VII 

RIVERS 

47. CANYONS 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 164-167. Dryer, 84-91. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 28-33. 

Reference books. . Fairbanks, Western United States : 10-18, Grand 
Canyon of the Colorado ; 31-40, Canyons of the Sierra Nevada 
mountains. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 53-55, Canyons. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 188-140, Canyons. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 170-173. The Colorado canyon. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 61-62, 
River gorges. 

Special terms. Canyon, gorge, ravine, gully, gulch, terrace. 

48. WATERFALLS AND RAPIDS 
EXERCISE XXXIV. A Waterfall 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 251-256. Dryer, 95-101. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 88-42. Redway, 119-121. Tarr, 53-54. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 96-98, 
Rapids and waterfalls. 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 60-63, Migration of water- 
falls ; 33-34 a , Potholes. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth: 159-165, Waterfalls. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 191-193 a , Waterfalls. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 136-138, Waterfalls. 



22 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Special terms. Rapids, cascades, escarpment, fall rock, dip, migra- 
tion, pothole. 

49. VALLEYS 

Text-books. Davis, 239-246, 278-286. Davis Ele., 196-201, 256- 
258. Dryer, 60. ' Gilbert and Brigham, 43-45, 57-59. Tarr, 54-59. 

Reference books. Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 196-199, 
Physiognomy of valleys. 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 52-54 a , Gradient of river bed ; 
145-150, Longitudinal profile of valleys ; 150-151, Cross profile of 
valleys. 

50. FLOOD PLAINS 

EXERCISE XXXV. River Flood Plains 

Text-books. Davis, 286-288. Davis Ele., 258-261. Dryer, 73-79. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 45-49. Redway, 113-115. Tarr, 61-63. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History: 180-186, The flood plain of the lower Mississippi. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 88-92, Alluvial plains. 

Russell, Rivers of North America: 110-116, Elood plains; 
116-123, Natural levees. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 186-187 a , River flood 
plains. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 178-179, Flood plains. 

Special terms. Flood, overflow, levee, crevasse, back swamp, bayou, 
flood plain. 

51. TERRACES 

Text-books. Davis, 280. Davis Ele., 199-200. Dryer, 160-161. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 52-54. Redway, 115. Tarr, 63-64. 

Reference books. Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 59-60, River 
terraces. 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 179 b -183, Terraces of the 
Colorado river and the Columbia. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 180, Terraces. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 50-51, 
River terraces. 



RIVERS 23 

52. MEANDERS, OXBOWS, LAGOONS 
EXERCISE XXXVI. Meanders 

Text-books. Davis, 241-240. Davis Ele., 261-205. Dryer, 75-76, 
158. Gilbert and Brigham, 49-52. Redway, 109-110. Tarr, 02-03. 

Reference books. Russell, Rivers of North A merica : 30-38, Meander- 
ing streams. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth: 152-155 a , Oxbows, or moats. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 180 b -183, Meanders, 
oxbows. 

Special terms. Graded, sediment, deposit, velocity, meander, ox- 
bow, lagoon. 

53. DELTAS, FANS, CONES 

EXERCISE XXXVII. Alluvial Cones 

Text-books. Davis, 275-278, 288-290. Davis Ele., 190-199, 
265-209. Dryer, 78. Gilbert and Brigham, 42-43, 54-57. Redway, 
115-119. Tarr, 04-07. 

Reference books. Dodge, Header i)i Physical Geography : 92-90, 
Alluvial fans and deltas. 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 101-109, Alluvial cones and 
fans ; 123-125, Deltas ; 125-127% Deltas of high-grade streams ; 
130-132, Deltas of low-grade streams. 

Shaler, Sea and Land: 1G2 C -10G, Deltas. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 170-177, Alluvial fans; 180-186, 
Deltas. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 54-56, River 
sediments. 

Special terms. Delta, fan, cone, distributary, estuary, bayou. 

51. LIFE HISTORY OF A RIVEE 

EXERCISE XXXVin. A Region in Youth. XXXIX. A Region in Maturity. 
XL. A Region in Old Age. XLI. The Life History of a River 

Text-books. Davis, 231-233, 237-239, 251-252. Davis Ele., 246- 
250, 254-255, 269-270, 270-273. Dryer, 152-150. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 57-00. Redway, 110-112. 



24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 98-99, 
Results of the work of running water. 

Fairbanks, Western United States: 124-132, The Skagit river. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 53, Base level of erosion. 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 46 c -49 b , Base level of erosion ; 
300-310, Life history of a river ; 311-320, Completion of geograph- 
ical cycle. 

55. RIVER SYSTEMS 
EXERCISE XLII. The Drainage Areas of the United States 

Text-books. Davis, 230. Davis Ele., 241-243. Dryer, 61, 79-80. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 36, 59. 

Reference books. Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological 
Field : 60-61, Drainage areas. 

Special terms. River, tributary, river system, basin, divide, 
portage. 

56. MIGRATION OF DIVIDES 

EXERCISE XLIII. The Migration of Divides 

Text-books. Davis, 246-250. Dryer, 157-158. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 65-66. Redway, 121. 

Reference books. Russell, Rivers of North America: 199-205, 
Stream conquest ; 247-253, Migration of divides. 

57. CONSEQUENT, ANTECEDENT, ENGRAFTED, DROWNED 

RIVERS 

Text-books. Davis, 258-260. Dryer, 162. Tarr, 103-104. 
Reference books. Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 55-59, 
Valleys, water gaps. 

Shaler, Sea and Land : 167-168, 173-174, Drowned rivers. 

58. TYPICAL RIVERS 

Text-books. Davis, 260-261. Dryer, 68-80, 81-91, 92-101. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 66-73. Tarr, 320-321, 322-325, 325-329, 
329-334. 



LAND FORMS DUE TO OTHER AGENCIES 25 

Reference books. Fairbanks, Western United States: 1-9, The 
work of the Colorado river. 

Russell, Rivers of North America: 43-45, Typical rivers — St. 
Lawrence, Missouri, Colorado ; 271-275, The Colorado ; 275-278% 
Rivers of the Sierra Nevada ; 296-298, The Niagara. 

59. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF RIVERS 

Text-books. Dryer, 163-167. Redway, 126. Tarr, 105-109. 
Reference books. Shaler, Aspects of the Earth: 185-193, How 
removal of forests affects rivers ; 193-196, Rivers and irrigation. 



CHAPTER VIII 

LAND FORMS DUE TO OTHER AGENCIES 

60. TYPICAL VOLCANOES 

Text-books. Davis, 201-207, 209-219. Davis Ele., 216-224, 
227-233. Dryer, 194-203. Gilbert and Brigham, 196-208. Tarr, 
112-122. 

Reference books. Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals: 13-17, The be- 
ginning of the earth (Kilauea). 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 117-120, Vesuvius. 

Russell, Volcanoes of North America : 2-7, Stromboli ; 7-22, 
Vesuvius ; 22-29, Krakatoa ; 29-36, Hawaiian volcanoes. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth: 46-56, Pliny's account of the great 
eruption of Vesuvius ; 62-64, Looking into the crater of Vesuvius ; 
74-76, The eruption of Krakatoa. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's Histori/ : 263-266% A near view 
of the crater of Vesuvius in eruption ; 276 c -282, Eruptions of Vesu- 
vius from 63 a.d. to 1872; 289 b -297 a , .Etna; 298 b -300, Krakatoa. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 103-111, 
Among the volcanoes. 



26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



61. VOLCANIC PHENOMENA 

EXERCISE XLIV. Specific Gravity. XLV. Volcanic Rocks. XLVI. Volcanic 
Peaks, Plateaus, and Necks. XL VII. A Crater 

Text-books. Davis, 199-201, 208-209. Davis Ele., 215-216, 226- 

227. Dryer, 203-209. Gilbert and Brigham, 208-219. Redway, 
80-90. Tarr, 122-130. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Rocks : 109-110, 
Eruptive rocks ; 114 b -122, Volcanic rocks ; 148-156, Dikes, intru- 
sive beds, volcanic necks, etc. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 154-162, Volcanoes. 

Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals: 59-62, The story of volcanic 
rocks ;■ 63-66, Different kinds of volcanic rocks. 

Fairbanks, Western United States: 19-30, How the Columbia 
plateau was made ; 60-69, Latest volcanic eruptions in the United 
States ; 70-74, Mud volcanoes of the Colorado desert. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Rs Story : 120-127, Volcanic phenomena ; 
127-132, Causes and distribution of volcanoes. 

Muir, Mountains of California : 11, Most recent eruption in the 
Sierras. 

Russell, Lakes of North America: 20-21, Crater lake. 

Russell, Volcanoes of North America: 193-198, Mt. Taylor; 225- 

228, Mt. Shasta, California; 235-236, Crater lake, Oregon; 241- 
245, Mt. Rainier; 250-257, Columbia lava flow; 96-103, Dikes, 
sheets, plugs ; 83-90, Structure of volcanic mountains ; 208-217, 
Mono lake, California ; 228-233, Cinder cone and lava field near 
Lassen's peak, California. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 77-89, Distribution and cause of 
volcanoes ; 89 c -92, The craters of the moon ; 92-97, Economic 
aspects of volcanoes. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 88-97, Volcanoes. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 303-304, Lava sheets; 
305-309, Dikes ; 266-271, Causes of volcanoes ; 288-289 a , 309 b -312, 
Economic aspects of volcanoes. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 329-352, Volcanoes. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 111-117, 
Frozen seas of lava. 



LAND FORMS DUE TO OTHER AGENCIES 27 

Special terms. Crater, cinder cone, lava, lava flow, scoria, pumice, 
volcanic neck, dike. 

62. EARTHQUAKES 

Text-books. Davis, 183-184. Davis Ele., 201-204. Dryer, 190- 
191. Gilbert and Brigham, 220-222. Redway, 95-100. Tarr, 130- 

132. 

Reference books. Dodge, Header in Physical Geography: 163-164, 

Earthquakes. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 132-137, Earthquakes. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth: 13-17, Causes of earthquakes; 27- 
39, Earthquakes in the United States ; 39-42, Construction of build- 
ings to withstand earthquakes ; 42-45, Earthquake waves at sea. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 130-140, Earthquakes. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 258-262, Earthquakes. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 367-371, Transmission 
of earthquake shocks ; 37P-376, Effects of earthquakes. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 353-361, Earthquakes. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 125-132, 
Phenomena and causes of earthquakes. 

Special terms. Stress, fault, focus, concentric circles, concentric 
spheres. 

63. LANDSLIDES 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 193-195. Dryer, 168. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 105-108. Tarr, 97. 

Reference books. Muir, Mountains of California : 104-109, Land- 
slide filling a lake ; 40, Avalanches of snow. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 174-177, Landslides. 

64. ALPINE GLACIERS 

EXERCISE XL VIII. Glaciers 

Text-books. Davis, 326-330. Davis Ele., 292-294. Dryer, 108- 
117. Gilbert and Brigham, 119-128. Redway, 153-156. Tarr, 
137-142. 



28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 121-127, 
Glaciers ; 127-132, Deposits made by glaciers. 

Fairbanks, Western United States : 41-49, An Oregon glacier. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 65-74, Snow and glaciers; 
75-82, The work of glaciers. 

Muir, Mountains of California: 15, A receding glacier; 16-18, 
Magnitude of work done by glaciers ; 26-27, Polishing of rock sur- 
face by a glacier ; 31-33, A trip over a glacier ; 81-82, Amount of 
work done by glaciers ; 103-104, Beginning of vegetation after gla- 
ciation ; 69, An imaginary view of the Sierras in the Glacial epoch. 

Russell, Glaciers of North America : 2-16, Leading characteristics 
of glaciers; 18-21, Glacial abrasion; 22-28, Glacial deposits; 
28-30, Glacial sediments ; 30-31, Changes in topography produced 
by glaciers; 55-62, The glaciers of Mt. Shasta; 62-67, The glaciers 
of Mt. Rainier; 67-69, The glaciers of Mt. Hood; 190-205, The 
life history of a glacier. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 8-12, Glacial pebbles. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 211 b -212, An avalanche 
in the Alps; 213-215 a , The neve; 215 b -216 a , The glacier proper; 
216 b -218 a , Debris carried by a glacier; 218-221, Crevasse, moulin, 
esker; 221 b -223 a , "Milky" water in glacial streams. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 195-219, Glaciers. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 24-32, Among 
the glaciers. 

Special terms. Neve, crevasse, moraine, ground moraine, lateral 
moraine, terminal moraine, striae, cirque, alpine glacier, mountain 
glacier, valley glacier. 

65. PIEDMONT AND CONTINENTAL GLACIERS 

Text-books. Davis, 324-326, 330-333. Davis Ele., 290-292, 294- 
295. Dryer, 117-121. Gilbert and Brigham, 128-132. Redway, 
156-158. Tarr, 143-147. 

Reference books. Russell, Glaciers of North America : 80-91, Muir 
glacier ; 109-127, Malaspina glacier ; 131-145, Glaciers in the Green- 
land region. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 225 b -228 a , Continental 
glaciers. 



LAND FORMS DUE TO OTHER AGENCIES 29 

Muir, Mountains of California : Chapter II, The glaciers. 
Special terms. Piedmont glacier, continental glacier, medial 
moraine. 

66. THE WORK OF ANCIENT GLACIERS 
EXERCISE XLIX. Topographic Forms due to Glaciation 

Text-books. Davis, 333-346. Davis Ele., 295-302. Dryer, 122- 
134. Gilbert and Brigham, 132-144, 144-150. Redway, 158-162. 
Tarr, 148-156. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History: 41 b -45, Changes wrought by ancient glaciers in New Eng- 
land; 115-126, The Great Lakes during and since Glacial times. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography: 132-135, The work of the 
great ice sheet. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 82-86, The great Ice Age. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 64 c -69 a , The advance and extent 
of the ancient ice sheet ; 69-72 a , The retreat and the effects of the 
great glacier ; 72-75, Organic life during the glacial period. 

Winchell, Walks and Tails in the Geological Field : 11-17, Lost 
rocks, bowlders; 17-24, Arrangement of the drift; 45-50, The 
floods of the Great Lakes. 

Special terms. Kettle hole, drift, loess, till, kame, drumlin, erratic. 

67. DESERTS 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 280-283. Redway, 296-298. Tarr, 86-89. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History: 245-251, The Great Basin and the arid regions of the 
southwest ; 251-254, The civilization of desert countries. 

Fairbanks, Western United States: 187-197, The life of the desert. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 17-18, Desert sands and 
deserts. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 340 b -341, Arid regions. 

68. SAND DUNES 

Text-books. Davis, 314-319. Davis Ele., 286-289. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 109-118. Redway, 224-227. Tarr, 87-88. 



30 PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHY MANUAL 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 76-80, 
The wind.- 

Eoth, First Book of Forestry : 198-202, Sand dunes checked by 
forests. 

Shaler, First Booh in Geology : 17-18, Dunes. 

Shaler, Sea and Land: 49-52, Dunes of sea sand. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 129-138, Wind erosion. 

Westgate, Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes : 9-17, Causes 
and development of sand dunes ; 18-20, Devastation of the estab- 
lished dune areas ; 21-34, Artificial reclamation of Cape Cod sands ; 
34-35, The Province lands ; 38 ff., Plates and description. 

Special terms. Sand blast, dune, migration. 

69. CORAL REEFS 

Text-books. Davis, 374-383. Davis Ele., 324-330. Dryer, 174- 
177. Gilbert and Brigham, 283-286. Tarr, 217-219. 

Reference books. Heilprin, The Earth and Rs Story: 138-149, 
Corals and coral islands. 

Jordan, Science Sketches: 224-228, The life of the coral polyp. 

Shaler, Sea and Land : 86 b -87, 203-207, Coral reefs ; 207 b -209, 
Atolls. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 150-152, Coral reefs. 



CHAPTER IX 

IMPERFECT DRAINAGE 

70. LAKES, SWAMPS, MARSHES 

EXERCISE L. Lakes 

Text-books. Davis, 232-234. Davis Ele., 248-250. Dryer, 150- 
151. Gilbert and Brigham, 60-62. Eedway, 165-169, 177-183. 
Tarr, 160-170. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History : 115, Depth of the Great Lakes, 



IMPERFECT DRAINAGE 31 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 113-118, Lakes. 

Fairbanks, Western United States: 133-140, The story of Lake 
Chelan. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 00-62, Lake basins and 
meadow lands. 

Muir, Mountains of California : 104-108, Death of a lake. 

Russell, Lakes of North America : 90-95, Life history of lakes. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology: 125-129, Lakes. 

Staler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 198-206, Lakes ; 331-335, 
Bogs ; 335 c -340, Marine marshes. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 188-194. Destruction of lakes. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 52 b -54, The 
filling of ponds. 

71. INTERIOR BASINS AND SALT LAKES 

Text-books. Davis, 304-314. Davis Ele., 283-28;"). Dryer, 135- 
149. Gilbert and Brigham, 158-100. Redway, 169-170. Tarr, 
163-164. 

Reference books. Fairbanks, Western United States: 95-105, The 
Great Basin and its peculiar lakes; 115-123, The story of Great 
Salt Lake. 

Russell, North America: 136-146, The Great Basin. 

Shaler, Story of Oar Continent: 212-213, Mineral substances in 
sea water. 

72. ENTINCT LAKES 
EXERCISE LI. Extinct Lakes 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 288-290. Gilbert and Brigham, 155-160. 
Redway, 170-177. Tarr, 164-165. 

Reference books. Fairbanks, Western United States : 168-175, Death 
valley. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 62-64, Ancient lake basins. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 146-148, Dead seas. 



32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

CHAPTER X 
UNDERGROUND WATERS 

73. PERCOLATING WATERS 

Text-books. Davis, 224-225. Davis Ele., 234-235. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 104-105. Redway, 132-134, 139-142. Tarr, 39-40. 

Reference books. Tarr, Elementary Geology : 150, Underground 
waters. 

Special terms. Run-off, percolate, vegetable mold, impervious 
strata. 

74. CAVERNS 

EXERCISE LII. Solids in Solution 

Text-books. Davis, 225-226. Davis Ele., 235-236. Dryer, 104- 

105. Gilbert and Brigham, 98-100. Tarr, 59-60. 

Reference books. Muir, Mountains of California : 329-330, Caves 
of the mountains of California ; 333-337, A visit to a cave. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 98-115, Caverns and natural bridges. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 74-87, The course of water under- 
ground. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 250-251, Dissolving 
power of water having carbon dioxide in it ; 253-255, Caverns ; 
255 b -256, Stalactites ; 256 b -258, Natural bridges. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 140-145, Caverns. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 140-143, Caves. 

Special terms. Solid, solvent, solution, saturated solution, sedi- 
ment, evaporation, stalactite, stalagmite. 

75. SPRINGS 

Text-books. Davis, 226-229. Davis Ele., 236-239. Dryer, 105- 

106. Gilbert and Brigham, 100-103. Redway, 135-136. 
Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 206-212, 

Springs and wells. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 87, Mineral waters ; 91-93, 
Hot springs and geysers. 



UNDERGROUND WATERS 33 

Shaler, Aspects of the. Earth: 123-130, Caverns formed by hot 
springs. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 253-258, Underground water. 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States: 418-420, Mineral 
waters. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 145-147, Springs. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 32-38, The 
hillside spring and its work. 

76. ARTESIAN WELLS 

Text-books. Davis, 126-127. Davis Ele., 238. Dryer, 102-103. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 103-104. Redway, 135. Tarr, 72 b -73. 

Reference books. Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 258 b -259, 
Artesian wells. 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States: 412-418, Artesian 
wells. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 147-149, Artesian wells. 

77. GEYSERS 

Text-books. Davis, 229-230. Davis Ele., 239-241. Dryer, 106. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 103. Redway, 136-138. Tarr, 132-133. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 164, 
Geysers and hot springs. 

Jordan, Science Sketches: 256-263, The formation of geysers. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 362-365, Geysers. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 93-102, 
A walk in the Yellowstone park. 

78. VEINS 
EXERCISE LIII. Veins 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Rocks : 123-126, 
Vein rocks ; 156 b -165, The structure of veins. 

Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals: 67-70, The story of a piece of 
quartz ; 71-75, Some varieties of quartz. 



34 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 66-73, Veins. 
Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 259 b -261, Mineral veins. 
Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 213-214, Method, of formation 
of veins. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE OCEAN 

79. SOUXDINGS 

Text-books. Davis, 61-62. Davis Ele., 98-99. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 298-299. Tarr, 173-174. 

Reference books. Shaler, Sea and Land : 75-80, Soundings. 
Special terms. Fathom, dredge, self-registering thermometer. 

80. THE SEA BOTTOM 

Text-books. Davis, 67-71. Davis Ele., 105-109. Dryer, 243-249. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 279-282. Tarr, 175-178. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American 
History: 350°-354, The work of the U.S. Coast Survey and the 
Hydrographic Office. 

Shaler, Sea and Land: 80 b -86 a , The shape of the sea floor; 105, 
Ooze ; 108-114, The fate of human bodies, ships, etc., buried at sea. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 64-70, The 
sea bottom. 

Special terms. Ooze, calcareous, mud, red clay, continental shelf, 
deeps. 

81. OCEAN WATER 
EXERCISE LIV. The Density and Temperature of Sea "Water 

Text-books. Davis, 62-65. Davis Ele., 100-102. Dryer, 250-255. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 286-288. Redway, 190-192. Tarr, 179-184. 

Reference books. Shaler, Sea and Land: 106, The cause of the 
cold of the deep sea. 

Special terms. Density, solution, salt. 



THE OCEAN 35 

82. WAVES 

Text-books. Davis, 71-76. Davis Ele., 109-114. Dryer, 258-260. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 288-290. Redway, 194-196. Tarr, 184-187. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography: 100-105, 
Wave erosion. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 132-138 a , Waves. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 221-231, Waves. 

Special terms. Trough, crest, white cap, breaker, surf, undertow. 

83. TIDES 
EXERCISE LV. Tides 

Text-books. Davis, 83-88. Davis Ele., 119-122. Dryer, 260-264. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 290-293. Redway, 197-200. Tarr, 187-190. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography: 111-113, 
Tides. 

Newcomb, Elements of Astronomy : 121-123, Tides. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 122-124, Physiographic effects of 
tides. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History: 126 b -132, Tides. 

Shaler, Sea and Land: 211 b -213 a , Tides; 223-229, Effects of 
tides on harbors. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 231-234, Tides. 

Young, Lessons in Astronomy: 181-187, Tides. 

Special terms. Gravitation, centrifugal force, high tide, low tide, 
slack water, spring tide, neap tide, ebb, flow, range of tide, bore. 

81. OCEAN CURRENTS 
EXERCISE LVI. Ocean Currents 

Text-books. Davis, 77-83. Davis Ele., 114-119. Dryer, 264-270. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 294-297. Redway, 200-205. Tarr, 190-194. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 108-111, 
Ocean currents. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology: 102-106, Ocean currents. 



36 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth' 's History : 145-148, The cause of 
ocean currents ; 148-150, The Gulf stream ; 150-152, The cold 
currents ; 152-156, Climatic and other influences of ocean currents. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 235-237, Ocean currents. 

Special terms. Eddy, drift, stream, sargasso sea, equatorial current. 

85. ICEBERGS, FLOES, PACKS 
EXERCISE LVII. Icebergs 

Text-books. Davis, 65-67. Davis Ele., 102-104. Dryer, 270-271. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 297-298. Redway, 162. Tarr, 194-195. 

Reference books. Russell, Glaciers of North America : 83-86, Ice- 
bergs. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 242 b -243, Icebergs. 

Shaler, Sea and Land : 115-123, -Formation of ice floes ; 123-132, 
Formation of icebergs; 133-139, Death of icebergs; 139-145, 
Climatic and physiographic effects of icebergs; 146-149, Beauty 
of icebergs ; 148-152, Perils due to icebergs. 

Special terms. Specific gravity, glacier, iceberg, floe, pack. 

86. THE SEA AND MAN 

EXERCISE LVIH. The Sea and Man 

Text-books. Davis, 57-59, 73. Davis Ele., 97, 110-111. Dryer, 
271-272. Gilbert and Brigham, 300-301, 315-318. Tarr, 15. 

87. LIFE IN THE OCEAN 

Text-books. Davis, 88-90. Davis Ele., 122-124. Dryer. 379-382. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 299-300, 343-345. Tarr, 195-198. 

Reference books. Shaler, Sea and Land: 25-27, Animal and vege- 
table life along shore ; 90-107, Life in the sea ; 229-243, Marine 
life (vegetable) as related to harbors ; 243-252, Marine life (animal) 
as related to harbors. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 69-70, Life 
in the sea. 

Special terms. Seaweed, coral, calcareous, phosphorescence, blind- 
ness, commercial value. 



COAST FORMS 37 

CHAPTER XII 

COAST FORMS 

88. CONTINENTAL OUTLINES 

Text-books. Davis, 70, 93-98. Davis Ele., 129-134. Dryer, 
38-45. Gilbert and Brigham, 281. Redway, 42-46. Tarr, 22-28. 

Reference books. Russell, North America: 1-16, The continental 
shelf of North America ; 32-40, Changes in the coast line of North 
America due to waves and currents ; 40-50, Changes due to oscilla- 
tion of the land. 

Shaler, Sea and Land : 62-66, 87 c -89 a , Continental shelf. 

89. ISLANDS 

Text-books. Davis, 374-383. Davis Ele., 324-330. Dryer, 45, 
174-177. Gilbert and Brigham, 282-286. Redway, 46-48. Tarr, 
217-219, 222-223. 

Reference books. Shaler, Outlines of the Earth 's History : 84'-85 a , 
Islands. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 78-81, Islands near North 
America. 

Special terms. Continental shelf, continental island, volcanic 
island, coral reef, atoll, stack. 

90. ENCROACHMENT OF SEA ON LAND 
EXERCISE LIX. Headlands, Beaches, Sea Caves 

Text-books. Davis, 360-366. Davis Ele., 304-314, 314-322. 
Dryer, 229-231. Gilbert and Brigham, 302-310. Tarr, 210-212. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography: 100-105, 
Wave erosion. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 104-106, Wear of the shore 
line. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth: 130-134, Sea caves. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology: 5-8, Sea pebbles; 15-19, Sand 
on the seashore ; 86-87, Sea caves. 



38 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 138 b -145, The work of 
the "sea mill." 

Shaler, Sea and Land : 8-12% Strong coasts ; 15-20, Sea caves, 
natural bridges, etc. ; 27-30, Weak coasts ; 41 b -46, Wearing of 
pebbles on a beach ; 48, Beach wall. 

Special terms. Strong shore line, weak shore line, headland, sea 
cliff, sea cave, bay, beach, abrasion, bowlder, pebble, sand. 

91. ENCROACHMENT OF LAND ON SEA 
EXERCISE LX. Barrier Beaches 

Text-books. Davis, 369-376. Davis Ele., 322-327. Dryer, 231- 
238. Gilbert and Brigham, 310-313. Tarr, 212-220. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 105-108, 
Wave deposits. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 106°-110, The ocean as a 
receiving basin. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 20-23, Mud. 

Shaler, Sea and Land : 49-52, Dunes of sea sand ; 68-72, Barrier 
reefs and sea marshes ; 86 b -87, Coral reefs ; 187-197, Sand reefs ; 
190 b -192, Cause of sand reefs; 203-207, Coral reefs; 207 b -209, 
Atolls ; 233-243, Marine marshes. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 84-87, Barrier islands of the 
Atlantic and Gulf coast. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 243-259, Deposition in the sea. 

Special terms. Hook, spit, reef, bar, dime, delta, stratification. 

92. RISING AND SINKING COASTS 
EXERCISE LXI. Drowned and Elevated Coasts 

Text-books. Davis, 357, 366-369. Davis Ele., 317-322. Dryer, 
95, 227-229. Gilbert and Brigham, 313-314. Tarr, 204-210. 

Reference books. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 165-170, 
Movements of the land. 

Fairbanks, Western United States: 75-85, History of a coast line. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 99-104, Inconstancy of oceanic 
and land levels ; 199-202, Physiognomy of the coast line. 



MINERALS AND ROCKS 39 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 217-221, Effects of subsidence. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth 's History : 91 b -96, Rising and sink- 
ing coasts. 

Shaler, Sea and Land : 34 b -37, Rising coasts, old sea margins ; 
169-173, Rising and sinking coasts. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 81-84, Islands and inlets of north- 
eastern North America. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 80-81, An 
Arabian narrative of rising and sinking coasts. 

Special terms. Coastal plain, terrace, drowned lands, fiord. 

93. COAST OUTLINES AND CIVILIZATION 

Text-books. Davis, 196, 358-359. Davis Ele., 320-322, 368. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 315-318. Tarr, 203-204, 223-225. 

Reference books. Shaler, Sea and Land: 154-161, Coast outlines 
and civilization. 

94. HARBORS 
EXERCISE LXII. Harbors 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 120-122. Tarr, 223-225. 
Reference books. Shaler, Sea and Land: 16P-162, What makes 
a good harbor ; 162-186, 187-222, 223-252, Harbors. 



CHAPTER XIII 

MINERALS AND ROCKS 

95. ECONOMIC MINERALS AND ORES 

EXERCISE LXIII. Economic Minerals and Ores 

Text-books. Tarr, 408. 

Reference books. Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals : 103-106, Coal, 
graphite, diamond ; 135-139, Gold ; 140-144, Placer mining ; 145- 
150, Iron; 151-153, Copper; 155-158, Silver; 159-162, Lead and 
zinc; 163-165, Tin; 166-167, Mercury or quicksilver; 170-171, 



40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Platinum; 172-174, Aluminum; 178-180, Sulphur; 181-183, 
Gypsum; 193-194, Garnet; 195-196, Asbestos; 204-211, Salt; 
212-215, Borax and soda. 

Fairbanks, Western United States: 215-222, The life of the 
prospector ; 223-232, Gold and gold mining ; 233-240, Copper 
mining. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 207-209, Gold and silver; 
209-213, Copper, zinc, tin, lead ; 215-220, Iron ; 220-224, Mercury, 
platinum, aluminum, sulphur ; 225, Rock salt ; 225-226, Gypsum. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 205-209% Importance of minerals 
in North America ; 228-231, Methods of occurrence of gold ; 
222-224, Iron. 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States : 144-146, Production 
of iron ore in the United States ; 224-227, Production of copper in 
the United States. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 145-153, 
Down in a mine ; 153-159, Iron and its geology ; 159-165, Salt 
and gypsum. 



96. ORGANICALLY FORMED ROCKS 
EXERCISE LXIV. Limestone. LXV. Coal 

Text-books. Davis, 102-103. Tarr, 410-411. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Rocks : 23-30, 
Organic agencies in rock formation ; 81-94, Chemically and organ- 
ically formed rocks. 

Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals : 79-84, How animals and plants 
help to make the rocks ; 85-86, Diatomaceous earth; 87-91, Lime- 
stone and marble ; 92-96, Calcite and dolomite. 

Fairbanks, Western United States : 241-246, Coal. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 23-26, Limestone and marble ; 
26-29, Coquina, chalk, ooze; 224-225, Graphite; 226-230, Coal. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology: 38-45, Limestone; 46-55, Coal. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 38-44, The coal-making time in 
North America ; 209-210% The origin of coal ; 214-219, Distribution 
of coal in the United States. 



MINERALS AND ROCKS 41 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States : 311-314, Coal ; 314- 
321, Coal areas in the United States ; 321-326, Origin of coal ; 
326-331, Conditions existing in Carboniferous times ; 331-333, 
Uses of coal ; 333-336, The production of coal. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field: 183-189, 
Solidified sunlight — coal and coal beds; 214-220, Lone burials in 
the coal lands. 

97. PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS 

Reference books. Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals: 97-102, The 
story of petroleum. 

Fairbanks, Western United States : 246-248, Petroleum. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 230-231, Petroleum and 
natural gas. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 210-211, Petroleum and rock 
gas ; 219 c -222 a , Distribution of petroleum, oil, and gas in North 
America. 

Tarr, Economic Geology in the United States : 340-346, Origin of 
petroleum ; 346-347, Uses of petroleum ; 347-349, Production of 
petroleum ; 351 a -355, Natural gas ; 355-357, Asphaltum. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 166-172, Liquid 
sunlight — petroleum ; 173-183, Gaseous sunlight — natural gas. • 

98. FOSSILS 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Rocks : 141-147, 
Ripple marks, fossils. 

Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals: 76-78, How wood changes to 
stone. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 38-39, Fossil imprints in the 
rocks ; 150-153, Fossils. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology: 189-194, How fossils are formed. 

Shaler, Sea and Land: 12P-124, Forests silicified while buried 
in sand. 

Ward, Report on the Petrified Forests of Arizona : 9-10, Scenic 
features ; 10-11, Location of the petrified forests ; 11-17, Geological 
considerations ; 17-19, Preservation of the petrified forests ; 22-23, 
Recommendations. 



42 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 78-81, Fossils ; 
189-197, Monsters of a buried world ; 206-214, Lessons from chalk. 

99. IGNEOUS ROCKS 
EXERCISE LXVI. Granite 

Text-books. Dryer, 34-36. Gilbert and Brigham, 6-7, 76-78. 
Tarr, 33-34, 406-407, 411-412. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Bocks: 111-114, 
Plutonic or dike rocks. 

Fairbanks, Bocks and Minerals : 27-33, What we find in granite ; 
34-37, How granite decays; 70, Use of quartz. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 30-32, Granite. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 12-15, Sand. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 39-44, Kinds 
of minerals and rocks. 

100. FRAGMENTAL ROCKS 
EXERCISE LXVII. Fragmental Rocks 

Text-books. Davis, 101-102. Dryer, 32-34. Gilbert and Brig- 
ham, 74-76. Tarr, 409. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Bocks: 72-80, 
Fragmental rocks ; 129-137, Stratification ; 137-140, Overlap, etc. 

Fairbanks, Bocks and Minerals : 47—51, How rocks are made ; 
53-55, Three kinds of sedimentary rocks. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Bs Story : 20-23, Sandstone and pebble 
rock ; 39-43, Stratification, folding, dip ; 29-30, Flags, shales, slates. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 30-33, Conglomerate ; 34-35, 
Sandstone ; 36-37, Mud stones. 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field : 44-45, Sedi- 
mentary rocks ; 71-77, Strata and their classification. 

101. METAMORPHIC ROCKS 

Text-books. Dryer, 35-36. Tarr, 34, 413. 

Reference books. Crosby, Common Minerals and Bocks : 30-34, 
Igneous agencies ; 95-108, Metamorphic rocks. 



WEATHERING AND SOILS 43 

Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals : 0G-0S, Slate, mica schist, and 
quartzite. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 33-35, Gneiss and schists. 

102. BUILDING STONE 

EXERCISE LXVIII. Building Stone 

Reference books. Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 232-238, 
Building stone. 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States: 359-360, What 
stones are used for building purposes ; 383-384, Building-stone 
production in the United States. 



CHAPTER XIV 

WEATHERING AND SOILS 

10:5. DECOMPOSING AGENTS 

EXERCISE LXIX. Decomposing Agents 

Reference books. Bailey, Principles, of Agriculture : 16-22, What 
soil is and how it is made. 

Crosby. Common Minerals and Bocks: 10 b — 14, Chemical erosion. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 13-17, The decay of rocks. 

Jordan, Science Sketches: 232-255, An ascent of the Matterhorn. 

Russell, Rivers of North America: 2-3, Mechanical disintegration ; 
236-240, Vegetation hastens weathering. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 300-309, Agents of soil formation. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 3 b -4, Frost as a weathering agent ; 
21 b -23, Oxygen, acids, worms, roots, as weathering agents. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 315 b -321", Effect of organic 
life on soil. 

Shaler, Sea a ml Land: 21-26, Weathering agencies along shore. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology: 109-119, Decomposing agents; 128, 
Summary of weathering. 

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture : .'10-35, The soil. 



44 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

104. KINDS OF SOIL 

Reference books. Bailey, Principles of Agriculture : 22-25, Trans- 
portation of soil. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 73-76, The effects of 
gravity in soil making ; 201-203, Kinds of soil. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 238-240, Clays and soils. 

King, Irrigation and Drainage: 269-274, Alkali lands; 280-289, 
Treatment and use of alkali lands. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 317-329, Kinds of soil and soil zones. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 24-29, Soils. 

Shaler, Outlines of 'the Earth' 's History : 322 b -327, Transported soil. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 183-190, Glacial, residual, alluvial 
soils ; 190-192, Alkali land. 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States : 391-394, Residual 
or indigenous soils ; 394-396, Transported soils ; 396-398, Glacial 
soils ; 399-402, Clays. 

Tarr, Elementary Geology : 120-121, Residual soil and soil zones. 

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture : 35-39, The composition of 
the soil. 

105. FERTILITY OF THE SOIL 

Reference books. Bailey, Principles of Agriculture : 25-36, The 
resources of the soil ; 37-46, The texture of the soil ; 47-50, 57 c -59 a , 
Moisture in the soil ; 50-57, 59 b -63, Increase and conservation of 
moisture in the soil, 

Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History : 46 c -50, 
Barren soil and abandoned farms of New England. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 198-201, Soils ; 204-205, 
Fertility of soils. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth : 329-339 r Fertility of the soil. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 327 b -331 a , Conditions of 
fertility of soil ; 343-348, How cultivation injures soil. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 6 c -9 a , Fertility of the soil. 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States : 398-399, Wearing 
out of soils by cultivation. 

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture : 77-80, Fertile soil ; 80-83, 
Elements which generally fail soonest. 



WEATHERING AND SOILS 45 

10G. FERTILIZERS 

Reference books. Bailey, Principles of Agriculture : 64-76, The 
tillage of the soil. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story: 240-241, Lime, guano, 
phosphates. 

Moore, Bacteria and the Nitrogen Problem : 333-342, Bacteria and 
the nitrogen problem. 

Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States : 402-412, Fertilizers. 

AVinslow, Principles of Agriculture : 83-89, Artificial and pre- 
pared fertilizers ; 89-97, Methods of applying fertilizers ; 100-107. 
Cultivation; 108-110, Draining; 110-112, Rotation of crops. 

107. IRRIGATION 
EXERCISE LXX. Irrigation 

Reference books. Fairbanks, Western United States: 259-2G7, 
Irrigation. 

King, Irrigation and Drainage: 66-72, Antiquity of irrigation; 
72-77, Irrigation in Europe ; 77-84, Irrigation in Asia ; 84-85, 
Irrigation in Egypt; 88-89, Summary of extent of irrigation; 
239-241, Units of measurement of water ; 290-296, Diverting river 
water, Punjab, India ; 296-304, Diverting river water, Redlands, 
California; 328, Use of animal power for lifting water; 338-344, 
Irrigation by flooding ; 352-359, Field irrigation by furrows ; 
373-381, Orchard irrigation ; 396-402, Subirrigation. 

King, The Soil: 268-275, Irrigation. 

Kinney, Forest and Water: 189, Measurement of water ; 229-233, 
Variation in stream flow ; 191-198, Methods of irrigation. 

Meade, Irrigation Institutions : 100-113, Measurement of water. 

108. FORESTRY AS RELATED TO THE SOIL 

Reference books. California "Water and Forest Association, Should 
the Forests be preserved ? 7-13, Forestry and irrigation; 18-21, 
How forests prevent floods ; 22-27, Forests and water storage. 

Gifford, Practical Forestry : 46-51, The forest as a soil former ; 
51-56, The forest as a soil improver ; 56-58, The forest as a soil 



46 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

fixer ; 58-63, The forest as a flood preventer and a conservator of 
moisture. 

Kinney, Forest and Water: 22, Advantages of forested water- 
sheds; 78-85, Torrents; 91-97, Control of torrents; 174-177, 
Forests increase rainfall and conserve moisture ; 185-186, Forests 
prevent evaporation. 

Roth, A First Book of Forestry : 203-209, The forest as a pro- 
tective covering. 

Russell, Rivers of North America : 236-240, Forestry. 

Slialer, Aspects of the Earth : 259-261, Forests enrich the soil; 
270-275, Forests prevent floods and increase rainfall ; 290-293, 
Underground work of forests. 

Tourney, Relation of Forests to Stream Flow: 279-288, The relation 
of forests to stream flow. 



CHAPTER XV 

PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND MAN 

100. CONDITIONS OF LIFE 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 332-337. Dryer, 349-351. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 332-338. Redway, 303-308. Tarr, 336-339, 353-354. 

Reference books. Coulter, Plant Studies: 169-175, The environ- 
ment of a plant. 

Jordan and Kellogg, Animal Life : 106-113, The primary condi- 
tions of animal life. 

Pinch ot, Primer of Forestry, Part I : 7-24, The life of a tree ; 
25-43, Trees in the forest. 

Osterhout, Experiments with Plants: 326-343, How plants are 
influenced by water ; 344-348, How plants are influenced by light ; 
348-349, How plants are influenced by wind ; 349-351, How 
plants are influenced by food ; 352-360, How plants are influenced 
by heat. 

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture : 55-57, Conditions of growth; 
61-62, Plants purify the air; 65-68, Food from soil; 71-73, Sap, 
nutrition, selection. 



PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND MAN 47 

110. PLANT ZONES 

Text-books. Davis, 319-321. Davis Ele., 353-357. Dryer, 351-359. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 323-328. Redway, 315-317. Tarr, 339-344. 

Reference books. Bergen,, Foundations of Botany : 307-323, Plant 
societies ; 324-335, Botanical geography. 

Coulter, Plant Studies: 177-187, Water plants ; 188-213, Drouth 
plants ; 214-220, Plants requiring moderate water supply. 

Merriam, Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States: 18-53, 
Life zones of the United States. 

Roth, A First Booh of Forestry: 37-40, The woods and the 
mountains. 

Russell, North America : 254-257, The treeless mountain tops. 

111. THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS 

Text-books. Davis, 105-111. Davis Ele., 338-349. Dryer, 364- 
382. Gilbert and Brigham, 328-331, 343-345. Redway, 324-328. 
Tarr, 354-359. 

Reference books. Bailey, Handbook of Birds of the Western United 
States: xxxiii-xxxvi, Life zones. 

Jordan and Kellogg, Animal Life: 29G-306, Fauna and faunal 
areas. 

Russell, North America : 264-292, Some representative mammals 
of North America. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 196-205, Animals of North 
America. 

112. MIGRATIONS AND BARRIERS 

Text-books. Davis, 54-56. Davis Ele., 333-334. Dryer, 359- 
360. Gilbert and Brigham, 340-343. Redway, 309-313. Tarr, 
345-346, 360-364. 

Reference books. Bailey, Handbook of Birds of the Western United 
States : xxxvi-xxxvii, Migrations. 

Beal, Seed Dispersal: 4-11, Plants spread by means of roots; 
12-17, Plants multiply by means of stems ; 18-29, Water trans- 
portation of plants ; 30-56, Seeds transported by wind j 58-60, 



48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Plants that shoot off their seeds ; 61-79, Plants that are carried 
by animals ; 80-83, Man disperses seeds and plants ; 84-87, Some 
reasons for plant migration. 

Bergen, Foundations of Botany : 373-386, How plants are scat- 
tered. 

Coulter, Plant Studies : 112-122, Dispersal of plants. 

Jordan, Science Sketches: 263 b -266, How the trout crossed the 
Rocky mountains into Yellowstone lake ; 267-278, How the trout 
came to California. 

Jordan and Kellogg, Animal Life : 272-283, Laws of geograph- 
ical distribution ; 283-288, The relation of species to habitat ; 288- 
296, Character of barriers to distribution. 

Osterhout, Experiments with Plants: 320 b -325, How seeds are 
scattered. 

Russell, North America : 292-298, Migration of animals. 



113. CHANGES IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 

Text-books. Davis Ele., 335-338. Dryer, 360-363. Gilbert and 
Brigham, 339-340. Tarr, 346-348, 364-365. 

Reference books. Bergen, Foundations of Botany : 387-395, The 
struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest. 

Coulter, Plant Studies : 142-148, The struggle for existence. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography : 119-120, Effects of cold 
and frost on life. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story : 156-158, The variation and 
extinction of animal forms. 

Jordan, Science Sketches: 9-19, The story of a salmon. 

Jordan and Kellogg, Animal Life: 114-122, The crowd of ani- 
mals and the struggle for existence. 

Osterhout, Experiments with Plants : 409—417, Mr. Burbank's 
work with plums ; 422-427, Mr. Burbank's work with the Shasta 
daisy ; 429-434, Methods and difficulties of crossing and selec- 
tion ; 434-441, Experiments with corn at the Illinois Experiment 
Station. 

Pinchot, Primer of Forestry, Part I: 44-66, The life of a forest. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology : 195-202, How species are made. 



PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND MAN 49 

Shaler, Sea and Land: 100 b -104, The struggle for existence and 
the origin of species. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent : 14-17, A progression of forms 
of life. 

114. ECONOMIC VALUE OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 

Text-books. Dryer, 385. Redway, 317-324, 328-331. Tarr, 348- 
350, 365-36G. 

Reference books. Bailey, Handbook of Birds of the Western United 
States : xxxvii-xxxix, Economic ornithology ; xxxix-xliii, The pro- 
tection of birds. 

Bailey, Principles of Agriculture : 106-111, The offices of the 
plant ; 201-207, The offices of the animal. 

Merriam, Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States: 9-17, 
Relations of the United States Biological Survey to practical 
agriculture. 

Roth, A First Book of Forestry : 133-134, Use of the forest ; 
136-150, Firewood, pulp, posts, railway ties, etc. ; 174-177, Resin 
and turpentine, seeds and mast ; 178-182, Pasturage, game, and 
fish ; 198-202, Sand dunes checked by forests. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 193-196, Domesticated plants 
of North America. 

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture : 61-62, Plants purify the air. 

115. FORESTS 

Text-books. Dryer, 352-359. Gilbert and Brigham, 319-323. 
Tarr, 349-350. 

Reference books. Brigham, Geograj/h ic Influences in American His- 
tory : 279-285, Forestry a federal question ; 341 c -346, The work 
of the United States Bureau of Forestry. 

Fairbanks, Western United States: 278-289, Forest belts of the 
Sierra Nevada mountains ; 290-302, National parks and forest 
reserves. 

Muir, Mountains of California: 247-254, A windstorm in the 
forest. 

Pinchot, Primer of Forestry, Part I: 67-88, Enemies of the 
forest. 



50 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Pinchot, Primer of Forestry, Part II : 7-37, The practice of 
forestry ; 38-55, Work in the woods ; 56-73, The weather and the 
streams ; 74-88, Forestry abroad and at home. 

Roth, A First Book of Forestry : 14-18, What light and shade do 
for the woods ; 18-24, What different soils do for the woods ; 
24-32, What moisture does for the woods ; 32-37, What heat and 
cold do for the woods ; 37-40, The woods and the mountains ; 
41^45, Use not abuse of the woods ; 104-112, Protection against 
fire ; 195-198, Porest plantations on prairies ; 209-214, Forests 
of our own country ; 214-216, Some history. 

Russell, North America: 215-218, The forests of North America; 
219-227, The tropical forests ; 227-235, The Atlantic forest ; 235- 
237, The boreal forest ; 238-249, The Pacific forest. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History : 341 b -343 a , Why prairies 
are treeless. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 112-121, Forests of North 
America. 

116. NATURE AND MAN 

Text-books. Davis, 1-7. Davis, Ele., 349-353. Dryer, 383-385. 
Gilbert and Brigham, 346-359. Redway, 335-336. Tarr, 369-375. 

Reference books. Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 153-157, Indi- 
ans of North America; 157-161, Indian civilization; 161-165, 
Geographical hindrances to Indian civilization ; Dodge, Reader in 
Physical Geography : 213-221, Defense, etc. 

Fairbanks, Western United States : 176-186, The Cliff Dwellers 
and their descendants. 

Harrington, About the Weather: 1-8, Man's conquest of nature 
takes several forms ; 9-16, Civilization has many disadvantages, 
especially physical. 

117. GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS IN THE LIFE OF 
CIVILIZED PEOPLES 

Text-books. Davis, 113-116. Davis Ele., 364-372. Dryer, 390- 
392. Gilbert and Brigham, 315-318, 359-370. Redway, 347-349, 
352-372. Tarr, 375-380, 384-392. 



PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND MAN 51 

Reference books. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American His- 
tory : 18-22, The Erie canal; 22-24, Railroads in the Mohawk 
valley ; 24-25, The railroads across the Appalachians ; 25 b -28, 
Geographic conditions favorable to New York city ; 50 b -52, Water 
power for New England cities ; 86-80, Effect of the Appalachian 
barrier on colonial and Revolutionary history ; 105-115, Historical 
importance of the Great Lakes ; 126-141, Importance of commerce 
of the Great Lakes; 160-172, Physiography and commercial alle- 
giance of the prairie country ; 250-263, Natural causes for the 
development of towns in Colorado. 

Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography: 28-32, Centers of life; 
33-46, Agricultural centers, grazing centers, lumbering centers ; 
47-58, Manufacturing, mining, fishing, hunting, and scenic centers ; 
104-107, Climate of the world — seasons and summary; 206-212, 
Water supply ; 222-227, Transportation and power. 

Fairbanks, Western United States: 205-214, How climate and 
physical features influenced the settlement of the West; 268-277, 
Location of cities of the Pacific slope. 

Russell, North America : 365-376, The Eskimos, the Innuits, the 
Aleutians ; 370-384, The Indians, resources and natural food sup- 
ply ; 384-304, Horticulture and houses of the Indians ; 306-406, 
The contact of the aborigines with foreign peoples. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent: 0-12, Life of man modified 
by geographical conditions; 161-165, Geographical hindrances 
to Indian civilization ; 233-245, Effects of the form of North 
America; 246-253, Commerce of North America; 262-278, The 
natural conditions of North America which affected its settlement 
by Europeans ; 166-169", Influence of soil, climate, etc. 

118. DISTRIBUTION AND RACES OF MEN 

Text-books. Dryer, 385-300. Redway, 336-347. Tarr, 381-383. 
Reference book. Dodge, Reader in Physical Geography: 228-231, 
Historical distribution of people. 



Part II 

FIELD AND LABORATORY 
MANUAL 



FIELD AND LABORATORY 
MANUAL 



EXERCISE I 
MAGNITUDES AND DISTANCES 

The following table gives approximately, in miles, the dis- 
tance of each of the eight planets from the sun, the diameter of 
each planet, and the diameter of the sun. 





Diameter 


Distance 




Diameter 


Distance 


Sun . . 


. 800,000 





Jupiter . 


. 80,000 


480,000,000 


Mercury. 


. 3,000 


36,000,000 


Saturn 


. 70,000 


881,000,000 


Venus 


. 7,000 


67,000,000 


Uranus . 


. 31,000 


1,772,000,000 


Earth. . 


. 8,000 


93,000,000 


Neptune . 


. 34,000 


2,770,000,000 


Mars . . 


. 4,200 


141,000,000 









Using the diameter of the earth given above, find the cir- 
cumference. How long would it take an express train to go 
this distance at the rate of 50 miles per hour? In a similar 
manner find the circumference of the sun. How long would it 
take the express train just mentioned to travel this distance? 
Using the scale of 200,000 miles to the inch, draw a circle to 
represent the sun. Use the same scale and draw a circle at the 
center of the sun to represent the earth. The moon is about 
240,000 miles distant from the earth. Place a dot at the proper 
point to represent this. Imagine the earth located as you have- 
drawn it, at the center of the sun, and take an imaginary trip 
from the earth to the surface of the sun. After reaching the 
moon, how much farther would you have to go? 



56 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

The volumes of two spheres are to each other as the cubes of 
their respective diameters. How many earths would it take to 
make one sun? Jupiter is the largest of the planets. How 
many earths would it take to make a Jupiter? 

Draw on the blackboard a circle to represent the sun, using 
the scale of 1,000,000 miles to the inch. How large is the 
circle? Use the same scale and place a dot to represent the 
distance between the sun and Mercury; between the sun and 
Venus ; between the sun and the earth. Make the dot for the 
earth very small ; it should not be as large as a period used in 
printing on this page. Place very small dots to represent the 
positions of the other planets. Are there any planets whose 
positions you cannot represent ? Why ? Imagine yourself stand- 
ing on the sun and looking at the planets ; which is more strik- 
ing, the sizes of the planets or the distances in space ? 

If you were to represent the position of the nearest fixed star 
according to the scale last used, you would need 300 miles of 
blackboard. Light travels at the rate of 186,000 miles per sec- 
ond. If light could travel in a circular path, how many times 
could it go around the earth in a second? At this rate how 
long would it take light to travel from the sun to the earth ? 
How long from the sun to Neptune ? At the same rate it would 
take the light of the nearest fixed star three years to reach the 
earth. How far is it to the nearest fixed star? This is how 
many times as far as it is from the earth to the sun ? Think of 
this at night when you look at the stars. 

EXERCISE II 
THE OBLATENESS OF THE EARTH 

Fasten a weight, as a small stone or heavy bullet, to a string 
and whirl it with the hand as nearly as you can round a fixed 
point on the table top or on the floor. What is the shape of the 
path? Trace the path with a chalk line. Does the whirling 
weight pull on the string. Whirl it rapidly. Is the strength of 



THE OBLATENESS OF THE EARTH 57 

the pull increased or decreased? Whirl it rapidly enough to 
break the string. What becomes of the weight ? Trace its path 
with a chalk line. What shape is its path ? What relation does 
it sustain to the former path ? The force which drives it along 
the latter path is called centrifugal (" fleeing-from-the-center ") 
force. In what direction with reference to the circumference 
does centrifugal force act on a whirling body ? 

What force acted upon the moving weight before the string 
broke, which did not act after it broke ? What relation does the 
direction of this force sustain to the circle ? This force is called 
centripetal (" seeking-the-center") force. When these two forces, 
centrifugal and centripetal, act at the same time, what kind of 
motion may result? Make a drawing in your notebook similar 
to the one drawn in chalk. Place arrows to show the direction 
of the motion. Place the words centrifugal and centripetal on 
the proper lines to represent the directions of these forces. 

Use the rotating machine and brass rings. Cause the rings 
to rotate slowly. What shape is the form which appears ? Which 
part is moving more rapidly, the part near the axis or the part 
midway between the poles ? In which part is centrifugal force 
greater? Cause the rings to rotate rapidly. What effect has this 
increase of speed upon the centrifugal force midway between 
the poles ? What change is there in the shape of the resulting 
form? Account for this difference in shape. Make a draw- 
ing to show the shape when rotating slowly and another to 
show the shape when rotating rapidly. Indicate by title which 
is which. 

How do you know that the earth is flattened at the poles? 
How was the fact discovered? Explain how it may have ob- 
tained this shape. Have we proved that it obtained its shape 
in this way? If this theory is the correct one, in what con- 
dition was the mass of the earth at the time it assumed its 
present form? 

What name is given to the centripetal force in the case of 
the earth's rotation? What evidence have we that the earth is 
rotating at the present time? 



58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE III 

THE DIRECTION OF THE AXIS OF THE EARTH'S 
ROTATION 

Suspend the gyroscope l by a string. Carefully balance 
it and cause it to rotate rapidly. Carry it around in a circu- 
lar path. What is the direction of the axis when at the south 
side of the circle ? at the east side ? at the north side ? at 
the west side? Repeat the experiment to be sure that your 
results are not accidental. What relation does the direc- 
tion of the axis in one position sustain to the direction in any 
other position ? 

Grasp the gyroscope firmly by the handle and cause it to 
rotate rapidly. Hold it with the axis pointing east and west; 
then quickly turn it so that the axis points north and south. 
Repeat this several times. Can you readily change the direction 
of its axis of rotation ? 

Observe a star or constellation in the east soon after sunset, 
and again after two or three hours. What change has occurred ? 
What is the cause of this change ? Observe the same star again 
during the night, and again the next evening soon after sunset. 
Are you able to see the whole of its path ? Why ? 

Observe a star in the north, very near the horizon, and again 
several times during 1 the night.' What change has occurred? 
What is the cause of the change ? What is the shape of the 
apparent path of the star ? Can you see the whole of its path ? 
Is there a star that does not have this apparent motion? Account 
for this. Describe the direction of the earth's axis with refer- 
ence to the stars. Does the axis always retain this direction ? 
How do you know ? 

Do you see any similarity between the movements of the 
earth and those of the gyroscope ? 

1 The gyroscope may be homemade by mounting a small heavy wheel on an 
axis. A bicycle wheel with ball bearings is suggested. 



LENGTHS OF DAY AND NIGHT 59 

EXERCISE IV 
LENGTHS OF DAY AND NIGHT 

Carry a globe in a circle round a pupil who will represent 
the sun. From data so obtained, define orbit and plane of orbit. 
Place the axis of the globe perpendicular to the plane of 
the orbit and carry the globe round again. Adjust a paste- 
board circle so that it will exactly bound the illuminated por- 
tion of the globe and thus separate the illuminated portion 
from the dark portion. An imaginary circle which does this is 
called the circle of illumination. Cause the globe to rotate. 
Compare the period of time required for some point on its sur- 
face, say your own town, to pass through the illuminated por- 
tion with the period required to pass through the dark portion. 

What angle does the axis of the earth form with the plane of 
its orbit? (See the text-books.) What angle does it make with 
the perpendicular to the plane of the orbit? Place the globe 
with its axis in this position. Find a place in the orbit where 
the lengths of day and night are equal (first position). Move 
the globe from this position through one fourth of the orbit 
(second position). Be sure that the pasteboard circle is properly 
adjusted. Compare the period of time that it now takes your 
town to pass through the illuminated part with the period 
required to pass through the dark part. Does the circle of illu- 
mination now cut your circle of latitude into equal or unequal 
parts? Compare the "day" part with the "night" part. Find 
another position (third position) in the orbit where the days and 
nights are equal in length. Describe this position with refer- 
ence to the first. Find a position (fourth position) in the orbit 
where the relative lengths of day and night are the reverse of 
what they are in the second position. Compare the relative parts 
into which the circle of illumination cuts your circle of latitude 
with the relative lengths of day and night. At what time of 
year do you find conditions existing similar to those of the first 
position ? the third position ? the second position ? the fourth 
position? Give names to these particular times of the year. 



60 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE V 
NORTH AND SOUTH LINE 

Set a post in the ground so that the top will be about two 
feet above the surface. A broomstick makes a good post. By 
means of a plumb line make this post vertical, and with it as 
a center draw a circle on the ground with a radius of 57.3 
inches. What is the circumference of this circle ? How many 
degrees are there in a circle ? What is the length of one degree 
of this circle ? 

What direction is taken by the first shadow which is 
cast by the post in the morning ? Give direction and length 
of shadow at 9 a.m. ; at noon ; at 3 p.m. What change in 
the length of the shadow occurs in the forenoon? in the 
afternoon ? 

At some time in the forenoon the end of the shadow will 
cross the circumference of the circle. Mark the point where it 
just touches the circumference. Do the same in the afternoon. 
Connect these two points with a straight line. This line is due 
east and west. Divide it exactly in the middle. Draw a line 
from this middle point to the center of the post. Extend the 
last line until it cuts the circumference on opposite sides. What 
angle does the last line form with the first? In what -direc- 
tion does the last line extend? Draw a line due east and west 
through the center of the post. Make a drawing to show the 
circle, the position of the post, and the lines. Use letters to 
indicate directions. 

At night observe the north star and place a mark on the 
circumference so that the mark, the post, and the north star shall 
be in a straight line. From this point draw a diameter. In 
what direction does the diameter extend? If this line does not 
coincide with the other north and south line, account for the 
difference. Do you know of any other method by which you 
miefht determine true north? 



THE APPAliENT MOVEMENTS OF THE SUN 61 



EXERCISE VI 



THE APPARENT MOVEMENTS OF THE SUN 



Part I 

Use the circle drawn in Exercise V. Stand so that the center 
of the post is between you and the point of sunrise. Make a 
mark on the circumference of the circle, such that it will be in 
line with the point of sunrise and the post. Is the point of sun- 
rise due east? If not, how many de- 
grees north or south of due east is it? 
(Should you find the point of sunrise 
5 degrees south of due east, its direction 
would be read " east, 
5 degrees south.") 
Make a similar ob- 
servation for sunset. 
When the sun is due 
south it is said to be 
on our meridian, and 
we call the hour noon. 
By the use of the 
clinometer (Fig. 1) 
determine the angle 
of elevation of the 
sun when it is on 
our meridian. (The 
angle of elevation is 
the angle that a ray 
of light from the sun 
makes with the plane 
of the horizon.) Set 
your watch by the 
sun at noon and from that determine the exact times of sunrise 
and sunset. From this determine the length of the day from 
sunrise to sunset. 




Fig. 1. The Clinometer 

When the clinometer is held so that the line AB is 
horizontal, the vertical line DO coincides with the 
line CO. When it is used to determine a vertical 
angle, All is pointed at the object of observation. 
])() then departs from CO as much as AB does 
from the horizontal, hence angle COD is the angle 
of elevation 

In determining the angle of elevation of the sun, hold 
the clinometer so that the shadow of the pin at A 
or at B falls on the line AB. Angle COD is then 
the desired angle 



62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Make observations similar to the preceding every two weeks 
and tabulate your results, giving, in different columns, (a) date, 
(b) direction of sunrise, (c) direction of sunset, (d) time of sun- 
rise, (e) time of sunset, (/) length of day, (g) elevation of the 
sun at noon. 

Part II 

When is the day longest? When shortest? When are days 
and nights of equal length? How many times each year are 
the days and nights of equal length? Is the sun ever directly 
over your head ? Is it ever north of you at noon ? At what 
time of day does the sun shine on the north side of the house ? 
Explain how this can be. During what months do you find the 
greatest difference between successive readings in the second 
and third columns of your table ? Compare this with the times 
of the equinoxes and the solstices. 

Part III 

Carry a globe in a circular path about a pupil, who will 
represent the sun. Adjust the globe so that the axis shall be 
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. What then is the angle 
of noon elevation of the sun to an observer at the equator? 
Hold a card tangent to the globe at 40 degrees north latitude on 
the side nearest to the sun, to represent the plane of the horizon 
of an observer at that point. What is the angle of noon eleva- 
tion of the sun to an observer at this point? (All the rays of 
light which reach the earth from the sun are practically parallel. 
Consider their direction as parallel to a line joining the center 
of the sun and the center of the earth.) Cause the earth to 
revolve about the sun. Note and record any change in the 
angle of noon elevation of the sun. 

Adjust the globe so that the axis shall be inclined 20 degrees 
from the perpendicular. What is the angle of noon elevation 
of the sun at the time of the equinox to an observer at the 
equator? to an observer at 40 degrees north latitude? Cause 
the earth to revolve about the sun. The greatest angle of noon 



THE APPAEENT MOVEMENTS OF THE SUN 63 

elevation of the sun is made at the time of the summer solstice. 
Determine and record this angle. When is the smallest angle 
made? Determine and record this angle. What is the differ- 
ence (in degrees) between the greatest and the smallest angle? 
Compare this with the angle of inclination (20 degrees). 

Repeat this part of the experiment, having the axis of the 
earth inclined 40 degrees from the perpendicular, and make 
the same comparison as before. Give a rule for determining the 
difference between the greatest and the smallest angle (noon 
elevations), when the angle of inclination of the earth's axis is 
given. Give a rule for determining the angle of inclination 
of the earth's axis, when you have the greatest and the smallest 
angle of noon elevation of the sun. Apply this rule to the noon 
elevations given in your table and determine the true angle of 
inclination of the earth's axis. Compare this with the angle 
given by the books. 

Part IV 

Use cross-section paper and mark out a rectangle 2G squares 
long and 24 squares wide. Draw a line lengthwise through 
the center of the rectangle. Let each square lengthwise repre- 
sent two weeks of time. Write opposite each line a date from 
your table of observations. Let each square crosswise represent 
an hour of the day. Let the line through the center represent 
noon. Place figures to indicate the hour represented by each 
line. Distinguish between forenoon and afternoon. Place a 
dot at the proper point to represent the hour of sunrise on the 
date of your first observation. Do the same for the hour of 
sunset. Make dots in the proper positions for all other obser- 
vations recorded in the table. In like manner represent the 
times of sunrise and sunset for that portion of the year not 
included in your table. (Use the almanac.) Draw a line through 
as many of the sunrise dots as possible, to make a somewhat 
regular curve. We call this line the sunrise curve. Draw the 
sunset curve. Shade the night portion of your diagram, leaving 
the day portion white. Give the completed diagram the title 
"Sunset and Sunrise Curves from — to — ," giving the dates. 



64 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE VII 
THE MOON 

Refer to the almanac, determine the date of the next new 
moon, and look for it on the evening of that day. If you 
do not see it, look again the next evening. Make a draw- 
ing of the moon as it appears when you first see it. Observe 
the moon at sunset two days later and make a drawing. 
Make a drawing every two days until the moon is full. Give 
your drawings a title, giving in each case the age of the moon 
in days, counting from the date of the new moon. In what 
part of the heavens did- you first see the new moon? What 
change in position occurs on successive evenings? In what 
direction does the moon move round the earth? How do you 
know ? In what length of time does the moon make one revo- 
lution round the earth? (Calculate the exact time in days, 
hours, minutes, and seconds from one new moon to the next 
succeeding, as given in the almanac.) 

Place a slated globe on the table and whiten the side which 
would be illuminated by the setting sun, if its light could fall 
on the globe. How much of the surface of the globe would be 
illuminated ? Let this globe represent the moon and allow one 
pupil to carry it entirely round the room, always keeping the 
white side toward the direction of the setting sun. How much 
of the surface is illuminated when the globe is south of you? 
How much of the illuminated part can you see? What phase 
of the moon does this represent? How much of the surface is 
illuminated when the globe is east of you ? How much .of the 
illuminated part can you see? What phase does this represent? 
In which direction from you is the globe when it represents 
the new moon ? 

Make a drawing to represent the surface of the moon as seen 
through the telescope. 



LATITUDE 65 

EXERCISE VIII 
LATITUDE 

If you were at the equator, where would the sun appear at 
noon at the time of the equinox ? What would be its noon 
elevation in degrees? Where would the sun appear at this 
time if you were at the north pole? (Remember that the 
sun is so remote from the earth that rays coming to the pole 
are practically parallel with those coming to the equator.) 
What would be the sun's noon elevation at the north pole? 
What would be its noon elevation if you lived 30 degrees 
north of the equator? If its noon elevation were 50 degrees, 
what would be your latitude? Give a rule for finding your 
latitude from the noon elevation of the sun at the time of 
the equinox. From your table of observations (Exercise VI) 
determine your latitude according to this rule. If the result 
is not correct, account for your error. Is your rule correct 
for noon elevations taken at any time of the year? Give a 
reason for this. 

Use the clinometer and take the elevation of the north star. 
Compare this with your latitude. What change would occur in 
the elevation of the north star if you should go toward the 
north pole? Where would it appear if you should reach the 
north pole? What would then be its elevation? What is 
the latitude of the north pole? What is the latitude of the 
equator? What would be the elevation of the north star at 
the equator? Where would the north star appear to one living 
in the southern hemisphere? 

Where does the line of your latitude strike Europe ? What 
places in North America are in the latitude of London, 
England? 

If a straight line were drawn from your home through the 
center of the earth, in what latitude would it pierce the sur- 
face on the opposite side ? In what longitude would this be ? 
Examine the globe to see if your answers are correct. 



66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

If you were to go clue south from St. Louis, Missouri, to the 
South Pole, over what laud and through what waters would you 
pass ? Name another town approximately in the longitude of 
New York ; of Tokio ; of Cape Town. 

EXERCISE IX 

SOME PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE 

Part I 

Aim. To ascertain whether air has weight. 

Apparatus. Balance and weights, electric-light bulb in which 
there is no air, Bunsen burner, blowpipe. 

Procedure. Suspend the electric-light bulb from the hook 
on one pan of the balance. Put weights into the other pan 
until the bulb is counterpoised as perfectly as possible. Use 
the blowpipe and blow the flame of the Bunsen burner against 
the bulb until a hole is made in it. Is the bulb now perfectly 
counterpoised? Is it heavier or lighter than it was before? 

Conclusion. Has air weight? 

Part II 

Aim. To ascertain whether air exerts pressure. 

Apparatus. The same as in Part I. 

Procedure. Observe the opening made in the bulb in Part I. 
Is the glass bent out or in around the opening? What force 
made the hole in the glass? Why was heat applied to it? 

Conclusion. Does air exert pressure ? 

Part III 

Aim. To ascertain in what directions air exerts pressure. 

Apparatus. The same as in Parts I and II, with the addition 
of an air pump and a bell jar. 

Procedure. Remove the bell jar to see that it is not fastened 
to the plate of the air pump. Place it again on the plate and 






CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 67 

exhaust the air. Try to lift it again. What success do j*ou 
have? Account for this. In which direction does this prove 
that the air presses? Observe the opening made in the bulb 
in Parts I and II. Was it made by pressure downward or from 
one side? Suppose the flame had been applied to the bottom of 
the suspended bulb. Would an opening have been made as 
before ? If you are not sure, try it. Does air exert pressure 
upward ? 

Conclusion. In what directions does air exert pressure ? 



EXERCISE X 
CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 

Observe the color and odor of oxygen. Partially burn a match 
and blow it out, leaving the end glowing. Insert this into the 
bottle of oxygen. What occurs? Repeat the process to be sure 
that it is not an accident. Oxygen is sometimes called the sup- 
porter of combustion. Will air support combustion? Why will 
the fire in a stove burn better when the "draught" is open? 

Attach a small quantity of steel wool to the end of a wire. 
Heat it red-hot in the flame of the Bunsen burner and insert it 
into the bottle of oxygen. What occurs? Will air support the 
combustion of steel ? Compare air and oxygen as supporters of 
combustion. Plow do you account for the difference? 

Attach a small candle to the top of a flat cork and float it on 
a vessel of water. Invert over it a tumbler with straight sides, 
keeping the mouth of the tumbler under water. What occurs? 
Account for this. When the tumbler was inverted it was full 
of gas (air). Is it now full of gas? Keep the water line inside 
and outside the tumbler at the same level and measure the 
length of that part now filled with gas. What proportion of the 
whole length of the tumbler is it ? What proportion of the whole 
quantity has been used up ? According to this, what proportion 
of the air is oxygen ? According to the books, what proportion 
of the air is oxygen? What gas is found in the air in largest 



68 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

quantity ? If the proportion of this gas were not so large, what 
difference would there be in the rate of the burning of a building? 

Cut a paraffin candle into pieces about half an inch long. 
Place three or four such pieces about six inches apart in the 
bottom of a V-shaped trough. Incline the trough at an angle 
of from 20 to 45 degrees with the horizontal. Invert a bottle of 
carbon dioxide above the upper end of the trough and remove 
the stopper. What results? Is carbon dioxide a supporter of 
combustion? Is it a heavy or a light gas? Describe the color 
and odor of this gas. 

Summary. Name the three most important gases found in 
the atmosphere and give the proportion of each. Give color 
and odor of each. Of what use is each? 



EXERCISE XI 

COMBUSTION AND OXIDATION 

Part I 

Heat a small mass of steel wool red-hot, thus burning off all 
oil. Place it on a cork, moisten it thoroughly, and float the 
cork on water. Invert a wide-mouthed bottle over the floating 
cork and support it with its mouth just beneath the surface of 
the water. Note carefully the height of the water in the inverted 
bottle. Leave it in this position over night. In the morning 
again observe the height of the water within the bottle. Com- 
pare the amount of air now in the bottle with the amount there 
the day before. The part which disappeared was oxygen. Where 
do you suppose it went? What change do you notice in the 
appearance of the steel wool? The new substance which has 
appeared is called an oxide of iron. What can you see appro- 
priate in this name ? What is the common name for this par- 
ticular oxide of iron? The process which you have observed 
is called oxidation. Define oxidation. Oxidation is sometimes 
called slow combustion. What can you see appropriate in this 
name? 



EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION 69 

What is the color of the oxide of iron which you have 
observed above? A very common color of oxide of iron is red. 
Examine and describe red ocher. Oxide of iron is the sub- 
stance that nature has used to il . paint the rocks red." Red and 
brown sandstone are usually colored with this material. Look 
for red, yellow, or rusty spots in blocks of sandstone or lime- 
stone. Bricks are usually red because the iron in the clay is 
oxidized in the process of burning. 

Part II 

What is the object of burning wood or other fuel in the 
stove ? Does the combustion of steel wool (Exercise X) accom- 
plish the same result ? How do you know ? What is the essen- 
tial gas in this process ? 

In breathing, the oxygen is removed from the air in the lungs 
and is conveyed by the blood to all parts of the body. Here it 
unites with the various tissues. Characterize this oxidation of 
the tissues as rapid or slow combustion. Compare the result 
with the result of burning wood. What gas is essential in 
breathing? Why? 

Did you ever notice that the temperature in a heap of decay- 
ing vegetable matter or about an old rotting log is different 
from the temperature of surrounding objects ? If so, what dif- 
ference did you notice ? In what respects does decay resemble 
combustion ? 

EXERCISE XII 
EVAPORATION AXD CONDENSATION 

Place a shallow vessel in one pan of the balances and partly 
fill it with water. Weigh it carefully and let it stand for sev- 
eral hours (or over night) in a place where there is a circulation 
of air. Weigh it again and compare with the first weight. 
Account for any change. The part which disappears is called 
vapor and the process is called evaporation. Is water vapor 
visible ? 



70 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY MANUAL 

Put a drop of water on the table top. Set a watch crystal 
filled with ether in the water and cause a breeze to blow over 
it, by fanning or blowing, until the ether is evaporated. Lift 
the watch crystal. What change has occurred in the water? 
Has the water gained or lost heat? Has the watch crystal 
gained or lost heat? The ether in evaporating took up and 
carried away the heat. 

Put a drop of alcohol in the palm of the hand. What sensa- 
tion is felt? What becomes of the heat? Why do we wrap a 
wet cloth around a water jar ? Is it desirable that the water in 
the cloth should evaporate ? Where does the heat go in such a 
case ? Where does it come from ? 

Fill a teakettle half full of water and cause it to boil vigor- 
ously. Does the water evaporate? Characterize this as rapid 
or slow evaporation. How may rapid evaporation be produced ? 
Place some cold object just in front of the spout of the boiling 
kettle. What occurs? What effect did the presence of the 
cold object have on the temperature of the water vapor? What 
name is given to the process resulting from such a change of 
temperature? How did this affect the temperature of the cold 
object? Does condensation give heat to surrounding objects or 
take heat from them? 

True water vapor is invisible. Do you find an area of true 
water vapor very near the end of the spout? What change has 
occurred to make it visible farther away from the spout? Why 
does this change occur? Which is capable of holding more 
water vapor, warm air or cold? 



EXERCISE XIII 
HUMIDITY 

Humidity is the moisture in the atmosphere. When the atmos- 
phere contains all the moisture that it possibly can, it is said to 
be saturated. Take the temperature and measure the dimen- 
sions of the laboratory. Refer to Table A and calculate the 



HUMIDITY 71 

capacity of this room for water vapor, that is, the amount of 
water vapor it is capable of holding at this temperature. Give 
the capacity in pounds. Does the room always have this amount 
of water vapor in it? The amount actually present, measured 
in grains per cubic foot, is called the absolute humidity. 

Observe the wet and the dry bulb thermometers. Take the 
reading of the dry bulb thermometer and record it. This gives 
the temperature of the room. Read the wet bulb thermometer 
and record it. Compare this with the former reading. Why is 
there this difference ? If the air is very dry, it will drink up 
the water from the wet bulb very rapidly. What effect will this 
have on the temperature recorded by the wet bulb thermometer? 
Will this increase or decrease the difference between the read- 
ings of the two thermometers ? The ratio of the absolute 
humidity to the capacity is called the relative humidity. When 
the air is very dry, is the relative humidity great or small? 
When the difference between the readings of the wet and the 
dry bulb thermometers is great, is the relative humidity great or 
small? Refer to Table B and find the relative humidity in the 
laboratory. Tell how you found it. You have calculated the 
capacity of the laboratory, and now you know what per cent 
of this amount is actually present. From this calculate and 
record the weight of the water vapor now in the room. Give 
the weight in pounds. 

Fill a brightly polished metal cup or can about half full of 
water at the temperature of the room. Gradually pour in ice 
water, stirring all the time, until a trace of moisture can be 
seen on the outside of the cup. Where does this moisture 
come from? Can you see it before it condenses? Compare 
the temperature of the can with that of the room. How 
must the can affect the temperature of the air in its immediate 
vicinity? Why does moisture condense on the surface of the 
can and not on other objects in the room? Carefully take and 
record the temperature of the water in the can. Allow the can 
to stand and become warmer until the moisture disappears. 
Take the temperature again and record it. Average these two 



72 



PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY MANUAL 



readings. The average is called the dew-point of the air at this 
particular time. The air immediately around the cup is at the 
dew-point. Is it at the dew-point elsewhere in the room ? To 
what temperature must the air in the room fall before dew will 
gather on objects in the room ? 

When the air is at the dew-point, the relative humidity is 100 
per cent. What does this mean ? When the absolute humidity 
is great, is the dew-point reached at a high or a low tempera- 
ture ? Is dew-point always at the same temperature ? Does the 
air always have the same amount of water vapor in it? Why 
does dew form on some nights and not on others ? 

Define humidity ; capacity for water vapor ; absolute humid- 
ity; relative humidity ; dew-point. 

TABLE A 

Grains of Water Vapor in a Cubic Foot op Saturated Air 
at Various Temperatures 



Deg. 


Grains 


Deg. 


Grains 


-a 

Deg. 


Grains 


Deg. 


Grains 


10 


.776 


34 


2.279 


58 


5.370 


82 


11.626 


12 


.856 


36 


2.457 


60 


5.745 


84 


12.356 


14 


.941 


38 


2.646 


62 


6.142 


86 


13.127 


16 


1.032 


40 


2.849 


64 


6.563 


88 


13.937 


18 


1.128 


42 


3.064 


66 


7.009 


90 


14.790 


20 


1.235 


44 


3.294 


68 


7.480 


92 


15.689 


22 


1.355 


46 


3.539 


70 


7.980 


94 


16.634 


24 


1.483 


48 


3.800 


72 


8.508 


96 


17.626 


26 


1.623 


50 


4.076 


74 


9.066 


98 


18.671 


28 


1.773 


52 


4.372 


76 


9.655 


100 


19.766 


30 


1.935 


54 


4.685 


78 


10.277 


102 


20.917 


32 


2.113 


56 


5.016 


80 


10.934 


104 


22.125 






HUMIDITY 
TABLE B, FOR FINDING RELATIVE HUMIDITY 



73 



S3 


Difference between Headings of the Dry and the Wet Bulb 


££ 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 





68 


35 


3 




































2 


71 


41 


12 




































4 


73 


46 


19 




































6 


75 


50 


25 


1 


































8 


77 


54 


31 


9 


































10 


79 


57 


36 


15 




, 






























12 


80 


60 


41 


21 


3 
































14 


82 


63 


45 


29 


10 
































16 


83 


66 


49 


33 


16 
































18 


84 


68 


53 


38 


22 


7 






























20 


•85 


70 


56 


42 


28 


14 






























22 


8(3 


72 


59 


45 


32 


19 


7 




























24 


87 


74 


61 


49 


36 


24 


12 




























26 


88 


75 


64 


52 


40 


29 


18 


7 


























28 


88 


77 


66 


55 


44 


33 


23 


12 


2 
























30 


89 


78 


68 


57 


47 


37 


27 


17 


8 
























32 


90 


79 


69 


60 


50 


41 


31 


22 


13 


4 






















34 


90 


81 


72 


62 


53 


44 


35 


27 


18 


9 


1 




















36 


91 


.82 


73 


65 


56 


48 


39 


31 


23 


14 


6 




















38 


91 


83 


75 


67 


59 


51 


43 


35 


27 


19 


12 


4 


















40 


92 


84 


76 


68 


61 


53 


46 


38 


31 


23 


16 


9 


2 
















42 


02 


85 


77 


70 


62 


55 


48 


41 


34 


28 


21 


14 


7 
















44 


93 


85 


78 


71 


64 


57 


51 


44 


37 


31 


28 


18 


12 


5 














46 


93 


86 


79 


72 


65 


59 


53 


46 


40 


34 


28 


22 


16 


10 


4 












48 


93 


87 


80 


73 


67 


60 


54 


48 


42 


36 


31 


25 


19 


14 


8 


3 










50 


93 


87 


81 


74 


68 


62 


56 


50 


44 


39 


33 


28 


22 


17 


12 


7 


2 








52 


94 


88 


81 


75 


69 


63 


58 


52 


46 


41 


36 


30 


25 


20 


15 


10 


6 








54 


94 


88 


82 


76 


70 


65 


59 


54 


48 


43 


38 


33 


28 


23 


18 


14 


9 


5 






56 


1)4 


88 


82 


77 


71 


66 


61 


55 


50 


45 


40 


35 


31 


26 


21 


17 


12 


8 


4 




58 


94 


89 


83 


77 


72 


67 


62 


57 


52 


47 


42 


38 


33 


28 


24 


20 


15 


11 


7 


3 


60 


94 


89 


84 


77 


73 


68 


63 


58 


53 


49 


44 


40 


35 


31 


27 


22 


18 


14 


10 


6 


62 


94 


89 


84 


79 


74 


69 


64 


60 


55 


50 


46 


41 


37 


33 


29 


25 


21 


17 


13 


9 


64 


95 


90 


85 


79 


75 


70 


6Q 


61 


56 


52 


48 


43 


39 


35 


31 


27 


23 


20 


16 


12 


66 


95 


90 


85 


80 


76 


71 


66 


62 


58 


53 


49 


45 


41 


37 


33 


29 


26 


22 


18 


15 


68 


95 


90 


85 


81 


76 


72 


67 


63 


59 


55 


51 


47 


43 


39 


35 


31 


28 


24 


21 


17 


70 


95 


90 


86 


81 


77 


72 


68 


64 


60 


56 


52 


48 


44 


40 


37 


33 


30 


26 


23 


20 


72 


95 


91 


86 


82 


78 


73 


69 


65 


61 


57 


53 


49 


46 


42 


39 


35 


32 


28 


25 


22 


74 


95 


91 


86 


82 


78 


74 


70 


66 


62 


58 


54 


51 


47 


44 


40 


37 


34 


30 


27 


24 


76 


96 


91 


87 


83 


78 


74 


70 


67 


63 


59 


55 


52 


48 


45 


42 


38 


35 


32 


29 


26 


78 


9(3 


91 


87 


83 


79 


75 


71 


67 


64 


60 


57 


53 


50 


46 


43 


40 


37 


34 


31 


28 


80 


96 


91 


87 


83 


79 


76 


72 


68 


64 


61 


57 


54 


51 


47 


44 


41 


38 


35 


32 


29 


82 


96 


91 


87 


83 


79 


76 


72 


69 


65 


62 


58 


55 


52 


49 


46 


43 


40 


37 


34 


31 


84 


!»('. 


92 


88 


84 


80 


77 


73 


70 


66 


63 


59 


56 


53 


50 


47 


44 


41 


38 


35 


32 


86 


96 


92 


88 


84 


80 


77 


73 


70 


66 


63 


60 


57 


54 


51 


48 


45 


42 


39 


37 


35 


88 


'.Mi 


92 


88 


85 


81 


78 


74 


71 


67 


64 


61 


58 


55 


53 


49 


46 


43 


41 


39 


35 


90 


96 


92 


88 


85 


81 


78 


74 


71 


68 


64 


61 


58 


56 


53 


50 


47 


44 


42 


39 


37 


92 


96 


92 


89 


85 


82 


78 


75 


72 


69 


65 


62 


59 


57 


54 


51 


48 


45 


43 


40 


38 


94 


96 


92 


89 


85 


82 


78 


75 


72 


69 


66 


63 


60 


57 


54 


52 


49 


46 


44 


41 


39 


96 


96 


93 


89 


86 


82 


79 


76 


73 


70 


67 


64 


61 


58 


55 


53 


50 


47 


45 


42 


40 


98 


96 


93 


89 


86 


82 


79 


76 


73 


70 


67 


64 


61 


58 


56 


53 


51 


48 


46 


43 


41 


100 


96 


93 


90 86 


83 


80 


77 


74 


71 


68 


65 


62 


59 


57 


54 


52 


49 


47 


44 


42 



74 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



TABLE B (continued) 



g 2 


Difference 


between Readings 


OF THE 


Dry and the Wet Bulb 


«« 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


40 


60 


2 








































62 


6 


2 






































64 


9 


5 


2 




































66 


11 


8 


5 


1 


































68 


14 


11 


8 


4 


1 
































70 


17 


13 


10 


7 


4 


1 






























72 


19 


16 


13 


10 


7 


4 


1 




























74 


21 


18 


15 


12 


9 


7 


4 


1 


























76 


23 


20 


17 


14 


12 


9 


6 


4 


1 
























78 


25 


22 


19 


16 


14 


11 


9 


6 


4 


1 






















80 


27 


24 


21 


18 


16 


13 


11 


8 


6 


4 


1 




















82 


28 


25 


23 


20 


18 


15 


13 


10 


8 


6 


4 


1 


















84 


30 


27 


25 


22 


20 


17 


15 


12 


10 


8 


6 


4 


2 
















86 


31 


29 


26 


24 


21 


19 


17 


14 


12 


10 


8 


6 


4 


2 














88 


33 


30 


28 


25 


23 


21 


18 


16 


14 


12 


10 


8 


6 


4 


2 












90 


34 


32 


29 


27 


24 


22 


20 


18 


16 


14 


12 


10 


8 


6 


4 


2 










92 


35 


34 


30 


28 


26 


24 


22 


19 


17 


15 


13 


11 


9 


8 


6 


4 


2 








94 


36 


34 


32 


29 


27 


25 


23 


21 


19 


17 


15 


13 


11 


9 


8 


6 


4 


2 


1 




96 


37 


35 


33 


31 


29 


26 


24 


22 


20 


18 


17 


15 


13 


11 


9 


7 


6 


4 


3 


1 


98 


39 


36 


34 


32 


30 


28 


26 


24 


22 


20 


18 


16 


14 


13 


11 


9 


7 


6 


4 


3 


100 


40 


37 


35 


33 


31 


29 


27 


25 


23 


21 


19 


18 


16 


14 


12 


11 


9 


7 


6 


4 



EXERCISE XIV 



LIGHT 



Part I 



Darken the laboratory, allowing only a single beam of sun- 
light to enter through a very small aperture made for the pur- 
pose. Fill with water a glass jar with straight sides, and add 
a little soap to make it cloudy. This will render visible the path 
of the beam. Use a mirror and direct the ray of light so that 
it will strike the surface of the water at any angle other than 
ninety degrees. Note and record any change in the direction 
of the path of the beam after it strikes the surface of the water. 
This change of direction is called refraction. Define refraction. 
Draw the apparatus and show the path of the beam of light, so 



LIGHT 75 

as to illustrate refraction. Give your drawing a title. When 
light enters any transparent substance obliquely from the air, 
this substance refracts the light. 

Pass a beam of light through a triangular glass prism, and 
let the refracted light fall on a white wall or on a screen placed 
for the purpose. Describe what you see. How many colors can 
you see? Which color is refracted most? Which least? This 
band of colors is called the spectrum. Name in order the seven 
principal colors of the spectrum. Stand in such a position that 
your eye will be in the region of red light. What color can you 
see ? Can you see any other colors from this position without 
moving the prism ? What becomes of the colors which you do 
not see ? 

Raindrops refract and reflect the rays of the sun, thus form- 
ing the rainbow. How many colors does any one raindrop send 
forth? How many of these colors can you see from any one 
raindrop ? What becomes of those which you do not see ? When 
the sun is in the west, in which direction is the rainbow seen ? 
What is the condition of the sky back of the rainbow ? Name 
three conditions necessary for the formation of a rainbow. 
Compare the height of a rainbow which is seen just before sun- 
set with the height of one which occurs earlier in the afternoon. 
Account for the difference. The portion of the rainbow which 
is visible forms an arc of a circle. What could be done to make 
the whole circle visible ? 

Part II 

Cause a beam of sunlight to pass horizontally through the 
glass jar filled with soapy water. Look at the jar from the side 
at which the light enters. What color is it? Look at the jar 
from the side at which the light emerges. What color is it? 
What color of light passes through most readily ? There is one 
color of the spectrum that passes readily through the upper 
regions of the atmosphere and goes out into space, suffering 
only slight change in its direction. What color do you think it 
is? Another (with those colors which are closely related to it) 



76 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY MANUAL 

is more interfered with, diffused, and reflected, until that is the 
only color which comes from the open sky to the earth. Which 
color is it? Why is the sky blue? 

In the evening and early morning the light of the sun must 
come long distances through the earth's atmosphere. Why 
through greater distances than at noon? What colors of light 
are liable to " get tangled up " in the atmosphere before reach- 
ing us? Which one will come through most readily? Which 
of these will we see ? What color would this make the sky 
appear to be in the evening and early in the morning? Does 
this accord with your experience ? 

EXERCISE XV 

MAGNETISM 

Thrust one end of a bar magnet into a box of tacks. Remove 
it and make a drawing of what you see. Place one end of the 
niagnet near, but not touching, one end of the needle of a com- 
pass. What occurs? Repeat, presenting the magnet to the other 
end of the magnetic needle. Does it affect both ends of the 
needle alike? Tie a string to the middle of the magnet, suspend 
it, and let it come to rest. (Select a string that will not twist, or, 

instead of using the string, 

balance the magnet on two 

watch crystals, as in Fig. 2.) 

Fig. 2. A Bar Magnet mounted on Two In which direction does it 

Watch Crystals so as to swing freely come to rest? Try repeat- 

under the Influence of the Earth's Mag- edly and compare resu l ts . 

The earth is a big magnet 
and acts upon your bar magnet very much as the magnet 
did upon the compass needle. Where are the magnetic poles 
of the earth ? (Refer to the books, and give latitude and longi- 
tude.) Upon what property of the earth does the compass 
depend? When was the compass invented? To whom is it 
most valuable ? How did the invention of the compass hasten 
the discovery of America ? 



ISOTHEEMS 77 

Compare the direction of the magnetic needle with your north 
and south line (Exercise V). Does the needle point due north? 
If not, does it point east or west of due north? How many 
degrees ? This difference measured in degrees east or west of 
due north is called magnetic declination. Refer to the map which 
shows magnetic declination in the United States. Determine 
and record the magnetic declination at the following points : 
Portland (Me.), Portland (Ore.), Los Angeles, Denver, St. Louis, 
Springfield (O.), Washington (D.C.), New York city. Name 
the states through which the line of no declination passes. 
Refer to the pilot chart of the North Atlantic ocean and trace 
the line of no declination (here called the line of no variation), 
naming islands near which it passes and telling where it strikes 
the coast of South America. Refer to the pilot chart of the 
North Pacific ocean and locate the line of no declination (varia- 
tion). In what direction does the compass point at Manila, P. I.? 
What change would there be in the direction of the compass 
in sailing along the great circle route from Yokohama to 

o o o 

San Francisco ? 

EXERCISE XVI 

ISOTHEKMS 

Pakt I 

The accompanying table gives temperatures as reported by 
the United States Weather Bureau at 8 a. m., Thursday, May 12, 
1904. Use a fine-pointed pen and insert the proper figures as 
near as possible to each circle representing a town. Be very 
careful in selecting the proper circle for towns in the eastern 
part of the United States. Use your pencil and draw the iso- 
therm of 40 degrees, beginning at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 
Draw the line toward the west, leaving north of the line all 
places having a temperature lower than 40 degrees, and south 
of the line all places having a temperature higher than 40 
degrees. This line will be somewhat irregular. It will cross 



78 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY MANUAL 

into British Columbia. Begin with Tacoma, Wash., and draw 
the isotherm of 50 degrees. This line is very irregular in the 
eastern states. It passes through Pittsburg, Pa., to Asheville, 
N.C., where it makes a sharp curve, passing back toward the 
north through Wytheville, Va. Continue it through eastern 
Pennsylvania to the Atlantic ocean near New York city. 
Begin with Norfolk, Va., and draw the isotherm of 60 degrees. 
Begin with Jacksonville, Fla., and draw the isotherm of 70 
degrees. 

After your teacher approves your work, trace the isotherms 
in ink. Continue each at both ends about half an inch beyond 
the boundary of the country, and place large figures to indicate 
the temperature which is represented. Give your map an 
appropriate title. 

Part II 

Write a paper in which you answer the following questions 
about your map. In what region do the isotherms of 40, 50, 
and 60 degrees reach their farthest point north ? Does this indi- 
cate that this region is warmer or colder than other regions in 
the same latitude? (Determine this by actual reading of tem- 
peratures.) There are two regions where these three isotherms 
make great bends toward the south. Does this indicate that 
these regions are warmer or colder than the other regions in the 
same latitude ? (Determine this by actual reading of tempera- 
tures.) Give names to these regions. Characterize the lay of 
the land as level, gently sloping, hilly, broken, or mountainous. 
Compare the elevation of the two regions where the isotherms 
bend far south with the elevation of the lower Mississippi, Ohio, 
and Missouri valleys, where the isotherms bend far north. (See 
the map of the United States, which is shaded to show eleva- 
tions.) What have the elevation and the lay of the land to do 
with the prevailing temperature of a region ? Take an imagi- 
nary trip from west to east across the United States, along the 
parallel of 40 degrees north latitude. Tell between what degrees 




Ph 



h -a 



fcD * 



•S ° 



79 



80 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

of longitude or in what states you are passing from a warmer to 
a colder region, according to this map ; also from a colder to a 
warmer region. 

Part III 

It should be borne in mind that the map which you have 
constructed and used shows the conditions of temperature as 
they existed on one day only at a particular time of this day. 
Figs. 3 and 4 are isothermal maps made by averaging tempera- 
tures for an entire month during a period of several years. In 
what respects are these maps superior to yours ? 

Refer to Fig. 3, which shows the isotherms for the month 
of July. In passing from the sea to the land in the northern 
hemisphere do the isotherms bend toward the north or toward 
the south? (Notice the marked deflection on the west coast of 
North America.) Does this indicate that the land is warmer or 
cooler than the sea? Account for the difference in temperature. 

Refer to Fig. 4, which shows the isotherms for the month of 
January. In passing from the sea to the land in the northern 
hemisphere do the isotherms bend toward the north or toward 
the south ? (Again notice the marked deflection on the west 
coast of North America.) Does this indicate that the land is 
warmer or cooler than the sea? Account for the difference in 
temperature. 

In what part of the world do you find the highest temperature 
in July ? Is this on the land or on the sea ? In what part of 
the world do you find the lowest temperature in January? Is 
this on the sea or on the land ? 




2 * 



o •§ 



£ £ 



81 



82 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



TEMPERATURES AT VARIOUS PLACES IN THE UNITED STATES 



Albany, N.Y. . . 
New York, N.Y. . 
Scranton, Pa. . . 
Harrisburg, Pa. . 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Atlantic City, N.J 
Baltimore, Md. . 
Washington, D.C. 
Mount Weather, Vs 
Lynchburg, Va. 
Richmond, Va. 
Norfolk, Va. . . 
Wytheville, Va. 
Charlotte, N.C. 
Asheville, N.C. 
Raleigh, N.C. . 
Hatteras, N.C. . 
Wilmington, N.C 
Charleston, S.C. 
Augusta, Ga. . 
Savannah, Ga. . 
Jacksonville, Ela. 
Jupiter, Ela. . . 
Key West, Fla. 
Atlanta, Ga. . 
Macon, Ga. . 
Tampa, Fla. . 
Pensacola, Fla 
Mobile, Ala. . 
Montgomery, Ala 
Birmingham, Ala 
Meridian, Miss. 
Vicksburg, Miss. 
New Orleans, La, 
Shreveport, La. 
Little Rock, Ark 
Palestine, Tex. . 
Galveston, Tex. 
San Antonio, Tex. 
Corpus Christi, 
Memphis, Tenn. 
Nashville, Tenn. 



Tex. 



Va. 



At 8 a.m., Thursday, May 

. 48 Chattanooga, Tenn 

. 48 Knoxville, Tenn. 

. 44 Louisville, Ky. . 

. 52 Lexington, Ky. 

. 52 Indianapolis, Ind, 

. 52 Cincinnati, Ohio 

. 54 Columbus, Ohio 

. 54 Elkins, W.Va. . 

. . 50 Parkersburg, W. 

. 54 Pittsburg, Pa. . 

. 50 Parry Sound, On 

. GO Saugeen, Ont. . 

. 50 Syracuse, N.Y. 

58 Oswego, N.Y. . 

50 Rochester, N.Y. 

60 Buffalo, N.Y. . 

64 Erie, Pa 

64 Cleveland, Ohio 

66 Toledo, Ohio . 

60 Detroit, Mich. . 

64 Alpena, Mich. . 

70 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich 

76 Houghton, Mich. 

78 Marquette, Mich 

62 Escanaba, Mich. 

62 Green Bay, Wis. 

70 Grand Rapids, Mich, 

70 Chicago, 111. . . 

62 Duluth, Minn. . 

66 St. Paul, Minn. 

64 La Crosse, Wis. 

62 Dubuque, Iowa 

62 Davenport, Iowa 

66 Des Moines, Iowa 

62 Keokuk, Iowa . 

62 Springfield, 111. 

62 St. Louis, Mo. . 

72 Cairo, 111. . . . 

64 Kansas City, Mo, 

72 Wichita, Kans. 

64 Concordia, Kans. 

56 Omaha, Neb. . 



12, 

56 
56 
62 
60 
60 
56 
54 
42 
52 
50 
38 
50 
44 
44 
48 
48 
52 
52 
58 
56 
44 
40 



42 
54 
62 
62 
34 
44 
48 
58 
62 
50 
66 
64 
64 
62 
62 
62 
56 
50 



1904 



Valentine, Neb. . 
Sioux City, Iowa 
Huron, S.D. . . , 
Pierre, S.D. . . , 
Moorhead, Minn. 
Bismarck, N.D. ... 34 
Williston, N.D. ... 34 

Havre, Mont 36 

Helena, Mont 36 

Miles City, Mont. . . 36 
Kalispell, Mont. ... 34 

Pocatello, Ida 38 

Bois£, Ida 44 

Rapid City, S.D. . . 42 

Lander, Wyo 38 

Salt Lake City, Utah. 44 
Cheyenne, Wyo. ... 33 
North Platte,. Neb. . . 44 

Denver, Col 40 

Amarillo, Tex 56 

Pueblo, Col 44 

Dodge, Kans 60 

Oklahoma, Okla. . . 62 

Abilene, Tex 62 

El Paso, Tex 60 

Santa Fe\ KM. ... 42 
Flagstaff, Ariz. ... 42 

Yuma, Ariz 62 

Phoenix, Ariz 62 

Victoria, B.C 54 

Kamloops, B. C. . . . 36 
Spokane, Wash. ... 42 
Tacoma, Wash. ... 50 

Portland, Ore 64 

Roseburg, Ore. ... 48 
Baker City, Ore. . . 36 
Carson City, Nev. . . 44 

Eureka, Cal 50 

Red Bluff, Cal. ... 62 
San Francisco, Cal. . 52 
Los Angeles, Cal. . . 52 
San Diego, Cal. ... 56 



THE BAROMETER 83 

EXERCISE XVII 
THE BAROMETER 

Aim. To ascertain whether the pressure of the atmosphere 
can be measured. 

Apparatus. Two glass tubes, each closed at one end, one 18 
inches long and one 32 inches long ; a cup and mercury. 

Procedure. Fill the 18-inch tube and invert it in the cup of 
mercury. What happens? Account for this. Fill the 32-inch 
tube with mercury and invert it in the cup of mercury. What 
happens? Account for this. If the pressure of the air could be 
increased, how would the length of the column of mercury be 
affected? If the pressure of the air were decreased, how would 
the length of the column of mercury be affected ? What do you 
know of air pressure at high altitudes ? How would the mercury 
column stand at high altitudes? How high is the average mer- 
cury column at sea level? Make a drawing showing the 32-inch 
tube inverted in the cup of mercury. 

Conclusion. Can atmospheric pressure be measured? What 
name is given to the instrument used for this purpose ? 

EXERCISE XVIII 
ISOBARS 

The accompanying table gives barometric pressure in inches 
and hundredths at various places in the United States, at 8 A.M., 
Wednesday, March 2, 1904. Use a fine-pointed pen and put 
the figures on the map in the proper places. Place the figures 
so that the circle which represents a town shall come in the 
place of the decimal point. Find the place having the lowest 
barometric reading and write there the word Low. Does this 
mean that the atmospheric pressure at this place is great or 
small? Draw isobars as follows: 29.60, beginning at Omaha, 
Neb.; 29.80, beginning at Springfield, Mo.; 30.00, beginning at 
Los Angeles, Cal. Draw also isobars of 30.10, 30.20, and 30.30. 



84 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



These will extend through parts of the Atlantic and Middle 
states. They will also extend through parts of California, Oregon, 
and Washington. Do not draw isobars at any place in Canada 
or Mexico unless there are figures to show' that they should be 
so drawn. Finish the map by placing large figures to show 
pressure at the ends of isobars or at some conspicuous place on 
the isobars. Give your map a title. 



BAROMETRIC PRESSURE IN INCHES AND HUNDREDTHS 



At 8 a.m., Wednesday, March 2, 1904 



Binghamton, N.Y 30.32 

Albany, N.Y 30.28 

New York, N.Y 30.30 

Scranton, Pa. ...... . 30.22 

Harrisburg, Pa 30.28 

Philadelphia, Pa 30.32 

Atlantic City, N.J. . . . . 30.36 

Baltimore, Md 30.30 

Washington, D.C 30.32 

Lynchburg, Va 30.26 

Richmond, Va 30.30 

Norfolk, Va 30.30 

Wytheville, Va 30.20 

Charlotte, N.C 30.20 

Asheville, N.C 30.14 

Raleigh, N.C 30.24 

Hatteras, N.C 30.22 

Wilmington, N.C 30.20 

Charleston, S.C 30.16 

Augusta, Ga 30.14 

Savannah, Ga 30.14 

Jacksonville, Fla 30.16 

Jupiter, Fla 30.18 

Key West, Fla 30. 14 

Atlanta, Ga 30.10 

Macon, Ga. . . . . . . . 30.12 

Tampa, Fla 30.18 

Pensacola, Fla. ..... 30.16 

Mobile, Ala 30.14 

Montgomery, Ala 30.10 



Birmingham, Ala 30.08 

Meridian, Miss. ..'... 30.08 

Vicksburg, Miss 30.02 

New Orleans, La 30. 12 

Shreveport, La 29.96 

Fort Smith, Ark 29.82 

Little Rock, Ark 29.94 

Palestine, Tex 29.96 

Galveston, Tex 30.06 

Taylor, Tex 29.92 

San Antonio, Tex 29.94 

Corpus Christi, Tex 29.98 

Memphis, Tenn 29.98 

Nashville, Tenn 30.06 

Knoxville, Tenn 30.10 

Lexington, Ky 30.08 

Evansville, Ind. 29.98 

Indianapolis, Ind 30.00 

Cincinnati, Ohio 30.08 

Columbus, Ohio 30.10 

Parkersburg, W.Va. . . .30.14 

Pittsburg, Pa 30.14 

White River, Ont 30.02 

Port Arthur, Ont 30.08 

Parry Sound, Ont 30.08 

Saugeen, Ont 30.08 

Syracuse, N.Y 30.20 

Oswego, N.Y 30.18 

Rochester, N.Y. . . . . . 30.14 

Buffalo, N.Y 30.14 



ISOBAKS 



85 



Erie, Pa 30.14 

Cleveland, Ohio 30.12 

Toledo, Ohio 30.10 

Detroit, Mich 30.10 

Alpena, Mich 30.04 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. . . 30.00 

Houghton, Mich 30.02 

Marquette, Mich 30.02 

Escanaba, Mich 29.94 

Green Bay, Wis 29.90 

Grand Rapids, Mich. . . . 30.00 

Milwaukee, Wis 29.90 

Chicago, 111 29.94 

Duluth, Minn 29.94 

St. Paul, Minn 29.70 

La Crosse, Wis 29.76 

Dubuque, Iowa 29.7(3 

Davenport, Iowa 29.78 

Des Moines, Iowa . . . . 29.68 

Keokuk, Iowa 29.80 

Springfield, 111 29.86 

St. Louis, Mo 29.88 

Cairo, 111 29.96 

Springfield, Mo 29.80 

Kansas City, Mo 29.74 

Wichita, Kans 29.66 

Concordia, Kans 29.64 

Omaha, Neb 29.60 

Valentine, Neb 29.40 

Sioux City, Iowa 29.54 

Huron, S.D 29.52 

Moorhead, Minn 29.88 

Bismarck, N.D 30.00 

Williston, N.D 30.06 

Battleford, Sask 30.30 

Havre, Mont 30.26 

Helena, Mont 30.08 

Yellowstone Park, Wyo. . . 29.68 

Miles City, Mont 30.16 



Kalispell, Mont 30.04 

Lewiston, Ida 30.16 

Pocatello, Ida 29.86 

Boise\ Ida 30.14 

Rapid City, S.D. . . .' . . 29.74 

Lander, Wyo 29.46 

Salt Lake City, Utah . . . 29.70 

Modena, Utah 29.92 

Grand Junction, Col. . . . 29.80 

Cheyenne, Wyo 29.50 

North Platte, Neb 29.56 

Denver, Col 29.46 

Amarillo, Tex 29.72 

Pueblo, Col 29.56 

Dodge, Kans 29.68 

( >klahoma, Okla 29.66 

Fort Worth, Tex 29.86 

Abilene, Tex 29.80 

El Paso, Tex 29.90 

Santa Fe\ N.M 29.92 

Flagstaff, Ariz 30.02 

Yuma, Ariz 29.94 

Phoenix, Ariz 29.96 

Victoria, B.C 30.30 

Kamloops, B.C 30.28 

Spokane, Wash 30.18 

Walla Walla, Wash 30.28 

Tacoma, Wash 30.32 

Portland, Ore 30.32 

Roseburg, Ore 30.26 

Baker City, Ore. . . . . . 30.22 

Carson City, Nev 29.82 

Winnemucca, Nev 29.88 

Red Bluff, Cal 30.08 

San Francisco, Cal 30.12 

Fresno, Cal 30.12 

Los Angeles, Cal 30.00 

San Diego, Cal 29.96 



86 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



EXERCISE XIX 
OBSERVATIONS OF THE WEATHER 

Make observations, read the instruments, refer to the weather 
map, and fill a table similar to the accompanying table. Make 
this record each day for one month. 

- In filling column 2, let O represent a clear sky, # cloudy, 
O one half of the sky overcast, etc. 

In columns 8 and 19 indicate wind direction by arrows. A 
change may be indicated by a curve or by a sharp turn. 

In column 20 use the following abbreviations : C, calm ; 
L, light, just moving the leaves of trees, or blowing the smoke 
slowly away from smokestacks ; M, moderate, moving small 
branches ; B, brisk, swaying branches, blowing up dust; H, high, 
blowing up twigs from the ground, swaying whole trees ; G, gale, 
breaking small branches, blowing down shade trees, etc. 

In column 22 give quadrant, or, if we are very near the 
center of the area of low pressure, write low. 

In column 23 name the state in which the area is central. 

In column 25 give miles per day. 

In column 26 name the region of the United States, as " Lake 
region," " eastern Gulf states," etc. 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


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18 


19 


20 


21 


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1 





PREVAILING WINDS 87 

EXERCISE XX 

.PREVAILING WINDS 

. Observe the pilot chart of the North Atlantic ocean. How 
is wind direction indicated ? (See explanation near the lower 
left-hand corner of the chart.) How is the percentage of calm 
days in any region indicated? 

From what direction are the prevailing winds from 10 to 20 
degrees north latitude? What name is given to these winds? 
(See the name printed in blue at both the northern and the 
southern limits of these winds.) From what direction are the 
prevailing winds from the equator to the parallel of 5 degrees 
north latitude, during the summer months? What name is 
given to these winds ? Compare the percentage of calm days 
in the region where these two winds meet with the number in 
the region from 10 to 20 degrees north latitude. What name is 
given to this region of calms? (See the text-books.) At what 
time of the year is this region of calms farthest north ? farthest 
south? Where does the north limit of northeast trades strike 
the L'nited States in December? in March? in September? 

Trace with a pointer an irregular line from the Bermudas 
(65 degrees west, 32 degrees north) to the Azores (28 degrees 
west, 38 degrees north), passing through the points having the 
highest percentage of calm days. Give the date of the map 
used in tracing this line. Describe the general direction of this 
line from the former point to the latter. Compare with the 
line of the northern limit of northeast trades. What name is 
given to this region of calms? From what direction are the 
prevailing winds from 15 to 20 degrees north of this region of 
calms? How far north could you go, according to this map, 
and still find the same winds ? 

Why is there a difference between the route of sailing vessels 
bound from New York to the equator and sailing vessels bound 
from the equator to New York ? 

Observe the chart for the North Pacific. What kind of a line 
is that portion of the sailing route which is represented from 



88 PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY MANUAL 

San Francisco to Australia? from Australia to San Francisco 
by way of the western passage ? Why is there this difference ? 
Why do sailing vessels from San Diego to the strait of Juan de 
Fuca put out to sea so far before turning north ? Give latitude 
of northeast trades in the Pacific ocean from June to Septem- 
ber ; from December to March. Account for the difference. 



EXERCISE XXI 
WINDS IN A CYCLONE 

Draw a rectangle six inches long and an inch and a half 
wide! Divide this into four squares and write the word Low in 
the center of each. 

Observe the United States weather maps. The arrows indicate 
the direction of the wind. Observe the map for March 5, 1904. 
What is the direction of the wind in the northeast quadrant? 
Observe the arrows nearest the center of the area of low ba- 
rometer. What is the direction of the wind in the northwest 
quadrant? in the southwest quadrant? in the southeast quad- 
rant ? In the first of your squares put at least four arrows to 
show the direction of the wind about the area of low barometer. 
Under this square write the date. Observe the weather maps 
for the following dates and fill in the other squares as you did 
the first one: March 7, 1904; March 19, 1904; March 30, 
1904. Give your completed work the title: "Direction of the 
winds about areas of low pressure, taken from the United States 
Weather Map." 

Answer the following questions. What is the shape of the 
path of the winds near an area of low pressure ? Do the winds 
in their movements seem to be approaching the center of the 
area of low pressure or constantly getting farther away ? Does 
this indicate that the column of air at the center is ascending 
or descending ? Why does this column of air move in this way ? 

Draw four more squares and put the word High in the center 
of each. Observe the weather maps for the following dates and 



AREAS OF PRECIPITATION 89 

place arrows to indicate the directions of the wind : March 4, 
1904 ; March 5, 1904 ; March 7, 1904 ; March 29, 1904. What 
is the shape of the path of the winds near an area of high pres- 
sure? Do the winds in their movements seem to be approach- 
ing the center of the area of high pressure or constantly getting 
farther away? Does this indicate that the column of air is 
ascending or descending? Why does this column of air move 
in this way? 

Characterize the movement of the winds about an area of low 
pressure as clockwise or counter-clockwise. Account for the direc- 
tion of this movement. What name do the books give to such 
a movement of the winds? Refer to any one of the maps on 
which a distinct low barometer is indicated, and measure the 
distance in miles across the region whose winds are influenced 
by the low pressure, that is, the region in which the majority of 
the arrows indicate that the wind is blowing in the general 
direction given above. Tell the date of the map from which 
you take your measurements. Characterize the movement of the 
winds about an area of high pressure as clockwise or counter- 
clockwise. Account for the direction of this movement. What 
name do the books o-ive to such a movement of the winds? 



EXERCISE XXII 
AREAS OF PRECIPITATION 

When a mass of air rises, does the pressure upon it increase 
or decrease ? Why ? What change of volume does this produce ? 
What change of temperature ? What effect will this have on 
its capacity for water vapor? If it was nearly saturated when 
it began to rise, what will probably result from its rising? In 
which do you think you would find greater rainfall, a cyclone 
or an anticyclone ? 

Refer to the weather maps of the following dates : March 7, 
11, 16, 19, 29, 31, in the year 1904. Record the number of 
cases in which the region of precipitation coincides with the 



90 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



area of low pressure. Record the number in which, it does not 
coincide, but is nearer the area of low pressure than it is to the 
area of high pressure. Record the number in which the region 
of rainfall is nearer the area of high pressure than it is to the 
area of low pressure. Do these observations justify your answers 
in the preceding paragraph ? 



EXERCISE XXIII 
TEMPERATURES IN CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES 

Examine the weather map for Thursday, March 3, 1904. 
What is the temperature represented by the isotherm passing 
nearest the center of the area of low pressure ? by the iso- 
therm passing nearest the center of the area of high pressure? 

Which has the higher temperature, the area of high pressure 
or the area of low pressure ? What reason can you assign for 
this ? What has been the change of temperature during the 
last twenty-four hours near the area of low pressure ? (Note 
the more or less circular area inclosed by the line of red 
dots. Read words and figures in red, and record the number 
of degrees colder or degrees warmer.) What has been the 
change of temperature near the area of high pressure during 
the same time ? 

Examine maps for March 2, 3, 4, 11, 16, 19, in the year 1904, 
and tabulate the results of your observations according to the 
accompanying form : 





Date 


Temperature 


Which 

is Warmer, 

Low or High ? 


Change of Temperature 
in the last 24 hours 




At low 


At high 




Near low 


Near high 









































MOVEMENTS OF LOW BAROMETER 91 

EXERCISE XXIV 
MOVEMENTS OF LOW BAROMETER IN THE UNITED STATES 

You have drawn the isobars for Wednesday, March 2, 1904 
(Exercise XVIII). At what point was the center of the area of 
low pressure for that day? Where is the center of the area of 
low pressure on the map for March 3 ? In what direction is it 
from that of March 2 ? The long line of arrows on the map of 
March 3 traces the path of this storm center. At Valentine, Neb., 
a small figure 2 placed above the circle indicates that the storm 
was central there on the second day of the nonth, and the letters 
a.m. just below the circle indicate that it was present in the fore- 
noon of that day. Where was the storm center in the afternoon 
of that day? Where was this storm first observed? (Note the 
first of the small figures.) On what day was it first observed? 
At what time of day? Can }-ou find any traces of this storm on 
the map for March 4 ? If so, where ? 

How many miles did the storm move from the morning of 
March 1 to the morning of March 2 ? How far did it move 
from March 2 to March 3 ? How far from March 3 to March 4 ? 
What is the average rate in miles per day ? Find the average 
rate in miles per day for the storm marked on the map of 
March 11. Do the same for the maps of March 16 and 10. 
Find the average rate in miles per day for these four storms. 
Near what point do the majority of these storms first reach the 
United States? In what direction do they move across the 
United States ? Refer to the pilot charts of the North Atlantic 
ocean and observe the average path taken by storms after they 
leave the United States. Refer to the pilot charts of the North 
Pacific ocean and determine the average path of storms across 
the Pacific ocean before they reach the United States. 

Use the blank weather map and trace the paths of storms for 
March 3, 11, 16, and 19, in the year 1904. Mark the dates of 
each storm track as they are marked on the weather map. Give 
your map a title. The following title is suggested : " Map of 



92 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

the paths of low barometer across the United States, taken 
from United States weather maps for March 3, 11, 16, and 19, 
in the year 1901." 

EXERCISE XXV 
WEATHER FORECASTING 

Suppose an area of low pressure is approaching your home 
from the southwest. From which direction is the wind blowing 
at your home ? Is the barometer rising or falling ? What change 
in temperature will probably occur ? What change in condition 
of cloudiness ? Suppose an area of low pressure is receding 
toward the northeast. From which direction is the wind blow- 
ing at your home? Is the barometer rising or falling? What 
change in temperature will probably occur? What change in 
condition of cloudiness ? 

Suppose that on Monday at your home the wind is blowing 
from the southeast and the barometer is falling. In which direc- 
tion from you is the area of low pressure? Suppose that on 
Tuesday the wind is blowing from the south and the barometer 
is low. In which direction from you is the center of the storm? 
Suppose that on Wednesday the wind is blowing from the west, 
the barometer is high, and the temperature is low. In which 
direction from you is the area of low pressure ? Read the para- 
graph printed in red on the Washington weather map. Copy 
that portion which applies to the conditions supposed above for 
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, and tell the source of the 
quotation. 

Observe the local weather map without reading the forecast. 
Using all that you have learned on the subject, make a forecast 
for your locality for the next twenty-four hours. Compare this 
with the Weather Bureau predictions and record the difference, 
if any. After twenty-four hours compare both forecasts with 
the actual conditions of the weather and record results. 



RAINFALL 93 

EXERCISE XXVI 

RAINFALL 

Part I 

The accompanying table gives the average annual rainfall 
in inches for a period of twenty years at various places in the 
United States. Use the outline map of the United States and 
place the figures, in ink, as near as possible to the circles rep- 
resenting the proper towns. Draw isohyetals (lines connecting 
points having equal annual rainfall) of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 
100 inches. Shade with blue the various belts, making the 
intensity of shading somewhat proportional to the depth of 
rainfall represented. Thus the regions of great rainfall will 
be dark blue, and the regions of least rainfall will be left 
unshaded. 

Part II 

Write a paper in which you answer the following questions. 
In what part of the United States do you find the heaviest 
rainfall ? Why is the rainfall so heavy in this region ? (See 
Exercises XX and XXIV.) Why is the rainfall not so great in 
western Nebraska? 

Refer to Fig. 5. Compare the rainfall of Chile with that of 
Argentina. What winds prevail in these countries ? What has 
this to do with the difference in rainfall? What has the lay 
of the land to do with the difference in rainfall? What parts 
of the world have the heaviest rainfall ? Compare the amount of 
rainfall along the equator with that about the tropics. 

What is the movement of the winds in equatorial regions? 
(See Exercise XX.) What has this to do with excessive rain- 
fall ? Characterize the rainfall as great or small in the regions 
of northeast and southeast trades. Is the capacity for water 
vapor increasing or decreasing in the region of the trade winds ? 
Explain. 




i Li... i 

WL 9 8 



s cb 



Ph 



ft 

A3 



94 



RAINFALL 



95 



AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL IN THE UNITED STATES 



Father Point, Que. . 33 

Eastport, Me 44 

Northfield, Vt 34 

Portland, Me 4:1 

Concord, N.H 40 

Boston, Mass 45 

Providence, R.I. ... 46 

Albany, N.Y 39 

New York, N.Y. ... 45 
Harrisburg, Pa. ... 42 
Philadelphia, Pa. . . 42 
Washington, D.C. . . 44 
Richmond, Va. ... 44 

Norfolk, Va 50 

Wytheville, Va. ... 42 
Charlotte, N.C. ... 50 

Raleigh, N.C 49 

Hatteras, N.C 63 

Wilmington, N.C. . . 52 
Charleston, S.C. ... 49 

Augusta, Ga 48 

Savannah, Ga 50 

Jacksonville, Ela. . . 53 

Jupiter, Ela 60 

Key West, Fla. ... 38 

Atlanta, Ga 52 

Tampa, Fla 53 

Pensacola, Fla. ... 58 

Mobile, Ala 63 

Montgomery, Ala. . . 52 
Meridian, Miss. ... 58 
Vicksburg, Miss. . . 53 
New Orleans, La. . . 56 
Shreveport, La. ... 47 
Fort Smith, Ark. . . 41 
Little Rock, Ark. . . 51 
Palestine, Tex. ... 44 
Galveston, Tex. ... 48 
San Antonio, Tex. . 28 
Corpus Christi, Tex. . 26 
Memphis, Tenn. . . . 51 
Nashville, Tenn. ... 49 
Chattanooga, Tenn. . 53 
Knoxville, Tenn. . . 50 



Louisville, Ky 

Indianapolis, Ind. . . 
Cincinnati, Ohio . . . 
Columbus, Ohio . . . 
Parkcrsburg, W.Va. 

Pittsburg, Pa 

White River, Ont. . . 
Port Arthur, Ont, . . 
Parry Sound, Ont. . . 

Saugeen, Ont 

Oswego, N.Y 

Buffalo, N.Y 

Cleveland, Ohio . . . 

Detroit, Mich 

Alpena, Mich 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 
Marquette, Mich. . . 
Green Bay, Wis. . . 
Milwaukee, Wis. . . 

Chicago, 111 

Duluth, Minn 

St. Paul, Minn. . . . 
La Crosse, Wis. . . . 
Charles City, Iowa . 
Dubuque, Iowa . . . 
Davenport, Iowa . . . 
Des Moines, Iowa . . 
Keokuk, Iowa .... 
Springfield, 111. . . . 

St. Louis, Mo 

Cairo, 111 

Springfield, Mo. . . . 
Kansas City, Mo. . . 
Wichita, Kans. . . . 

Omaha, Neb 

Valentine, Neb. . . . 
Sioux City, Iowa . . . 

Huron, S.D 

Pierre, S.D 

Moorhead, Minn. . . 
Bismarck, N.D. . . . 
Williston, N.D. ... 
Battleford, Sask. . . 
Havre, Mont 



45 
42 
41 
38 
43 
36 
25 
25 
38 
34 
37 
38 
36 
32 
34 
36 
32 
31 
31 
34 
30 
29 
31 
29 
34 
33 
32 
35 



Helena, Mont 15 

Miles City, Mont. . . 13 

Lewiston, Ida 17 

Pocatello, Ida 13 

Boise\ Ida 14 

Rapid City, S.D. . . 16 

Lander, Wyo 13 

Salt Lake City, Utah 17 
Modena, Utah .... 7 
Grand Junction, Col. 8 

Durango, Col 17 

Cheyenne, Wyo. ... 13 
North Platte, Neb. . . 18 

Denver, Col 14 

Amarillo, Tex 22 

Pueblo, Col 12 

Dodge, Kans 21 

Fort Worth, Tex. . . 34 

Abilene, Tex 24 

Roswell, N.M 18 

Santa Fe, N.M. ... 15 
Flagstaff, Ariz. ... 24 

Yuma, Ariz 3 

Phoenix, Ariz 7 

Victoria, B.C 38 

Neah Bay, Wash. . 112 
Spokane, Wash. ... 18 
Walla Walla, Wash. . 17 
Tacoma, Wash. ... 52 

Portland, Ore 45 

Glenora, Ore. . . . 136 
Roseburg, Ore. ... 35 
Baker City, Ore. ... 20 
Carson City, Nev. . . 12 
Winnemucca, Nev. . 9 

Eureka, Cal 45 

Red Bluff, Cal. ... 24 
Sacramento, Cal. . . 20 
San Francisco, Cal. . 23 

Fresno, Cal 9 

Independence, Cal. . 6 
San Luis Obispo, Cal. 21 
Los Angeles, Cal. . . 16 
San Diego, Cal. ... 9 



96 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE XXVII 

ZONES OF CLIMATE 

Part I 

What is meant by the heat equator? Where does it reach its 
farthest point north in July? (Refer to Fig. 3.) Where does it 
reach its farthest point south in July? About what is its aver- 
age latitude for this month? Where does it reach its farthest 
point south in January? (Refer to Fig. 4.) Where does it 
reach its farthest point north in January? About what is its 
average latitude for this month? Is the heat equator farther 
from the geographical equator in July or in January? Account 
for the difference. 

Professor Davis says : " At the head of the Gulf of Guinea, 
west equatorial Africa, rain is most abundant in March and 
from October to November. In Ceylon the rainfall is greater 
in May and October than in any other months ; at the city of 
Quito, Ecuador, in April and November." How do you explain 
these double rainy seasons ? 

Part II 

What is meant by range of temperature ? Refer to Fig. 6 
and answer the following questions. 

What point on the earth has the greatest range of tempera- 
ture? What point ranks next? Are these points on sea or 
land? Are they densely or sparsely populated? What places 
have least range of temperature? Do any densely populated 
countries lie within this belt? Which is more desirable for 
residence, other things being equal, great or small range of 
temperature ? How does climate help to make men indus- 
trious ? 

What are the points of greatest range of temperature in the 
southern hemisphere ? Compare these ranges with those of the 
northern hemisphere and account for the difference. If the earth's 



ZONES OF CLIMATE 



97 



surface were all land, where would be the points of greatest 
range of temperature? Why are the points of greatest range in 
the northern hemisphere not located farther north ? 




Fig. 6. Lines of Equal Annual Range of Temperature 



Part III 

Compare the east and the west coasts of the United States in 
range of temperature (e.g. San Francisco, Cal., and Norfolk, Va. ; 
or Portland, Ore., and Eastport, Me.). How do you account for 
the difference ? (See Exercise XX.) Make similar comparison 
of the east and the west coasts of Eurasia (e.g. Norway and 
Kamchatka). Compare the east coast of North America and 
the west coast of Eurasia (e.g. Labrador and England). 



Part IV 

Where is the belt of tropical calms in the northern hemi- 
sphere? (See Exercise XX.) Is this a region of high or low 
barometric pressure? (See the small maps on the pilot charts.) 
Are conditions here favorable for large rainfall ? (See Exercise 
XXII.) Why ? How is this region of calms related to the arid 
regions of the southwestern United States ? In what countries 



98. PHYSICAL GEOGKAPHY MANUAL 

of the eastern hemisphere do you find extensive deserts ? In 
what latitude are they? Compare this with the latitude of the 
region of calms. Do you find deserts in the southern hemisphere 
corresponding to the region of tropical calms ? 

Southern California is alternately in the belt of tropical calms 
and the region of prevailing westerlies. During what time of 
year is it in the belt of calms ? What kind of weather would 
you expect in this region at this time ? 

Give all the reasons that you can for the marked difference 
between the rainfall on the coast of southern California and that 
on the coast of Oregon. 

EXERCISE XXVIII 

ELEVATIONS AND DEPRESSIONS OF THE EARTH'S SUR- 
FACE DRAWN TO SCALE 

Refer to the map of the United States showing elevations by 
colors (Fig. 7). Use cross-section paper and draw a profile along 
the parallel of 37 degrees north latitude. Use a horizontal scale 
of 2 millimeters to 1 degree, vertical scale of 2 millimeters to 
1000 feet. Draw a rectangle around your profile, marking the 
degrees above and the elevations on the right and left. Indicate 
longitude as either east or west. Below the rectangle write the 
names of the principal land and water features, such as Pacific 
Ocean, Coast Range, Valley of California, Sierra Nevada Moun- 
tains, Grreat Basin, etc. Number these features consecutively 
and place corresponding figures beneath the proper part of the 
profile. Give your profile an appropriate title, stating horizontal 
and vertical scales. 

Note. Use pen and ink to finish drawing. The water may be colored 
a very light blue. The land may be shaded with a lead pencil. Space 
above land and water should be left without shading. 




105 Long-it ude 100 



CONTOUR LINES 99 

EXERCISE XXIX 

CONTOUR LINES 

Part I 

Shape a sand hill on the table so that you will have a ridge 
extending in one direction from the summit, and one or more 
small streams flowing down the sides. Place a block one inch 
thick on the table and lay a long straight pointer on top of it. 
Move the block and pointer so that the end of the pointer will 
just touch and make a mark on the side of the hill. Move the 
block and pointer around so that a continuous line will be 
traced. This is a contour line. Place another block under the 
first, so that the pointer will be two inches from the top of 
the table, and trace another line around the hill. Repeat the 
process, adding one block at a time, until the top of the hill 
is reached. 

Draw a map of the surface as you would see it looking from 
above. Use the scale most convenient. Give your map a title, 
stating that it was made in the laboratory. 

Part II 

Write a paper as follows : 

Define contour line. A contour interval is the vertical distance 
between two contour lines. What is the contour interval in the 
contour map of the sand hill ? How does the land lie where the 
contour lines are near together? where they are far apart? 
When contour lines cross a stream do they bend up the stream 
or down the stream? When contour lines pass around a ridge 
do they bend toward the summit or away from it? 

Part III 

Answer the following questions by referring to the pic- 
ture, contour map, hachure map, and profile (Figs. 8-11). After 



100 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



each answer put in parentheses a word which will tell from 
which of the four you could secure the desired information. 
(1) Give height of cliff at A. (2) Determine the shortest hori- 
zontal distance from A to the sea. (3) How many streams flow 







Fig. 8. A Landscape 




Fig. 9. A Hachure Map of the Region shown in Fig. 8 

into the sea? (4) It is desired to make a road in a straight 
line from B to C, having a uniform grade. How deep will 
the deepest " cut " be ? How far will the roadbed be above the 
bed of the. large stream ? (5) In which direction does the land 
slope between A and B? (6) What portion of this region is 
forested ? 



CONTOUR MAPS 



101 



From which of these sources can you determine vertical dis- 
tances accurately ? horizontal distances ? In what respects is 
the contour map superior to the hachure map? In what respects 
is the picture superior to either? In what respects is it inferior 

to either? 

a 




Fir,. 10. A Contour Map of the Region shown in Fig. 8 





































































































































































































~~ 


























-— 








=r =: - 












i^P 








" y 









Fig. 11. A Profile drawn from B to C in Fig. 10 



EXERCISE XXX 



CONTOUR MAPS 

Part I 

Visit a small stream which you can easily walk across. Make 
a map of the region, showing the stream, its tributaries, the 
roads, buildings, and other prominent landmarks. Use two 
parallel lines just as close together as you can draw them to 
represent the roads. Indicate the cardinal points. 



102 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

"Walk across the stream, always keeping on the same hori- 
zontal plane. In crossing, do you go up the stream or down 
the stream? Walk for a considerable distance, always keeping 
on the same horizontal plane. Does your path lead you from 
the bed of the stream or nearer to it ? Draw a line on the map, 
tracing the path along which you have walked. This is a con- 
tour line, if you have not departed from a horizontal plane. 
Draw other contour lines both above and below this one, using 
a contour interval of 10 feet. 

When in doubt as to the height of a point, walk to it and 
compare its height with that of a known point. Levels may be 
determined by the use of the clinometer. Give your map an 
appropriate title, saying that it was made in the field. 

Part II 

Refer to the map, Fig. 12. Use cross-section paper and draw 
the profile along an imaginary line extending from A to B. Use 
the same horizontal scale as is used on the map ; vertical scale 
one square to 100 feet. Make a rectangle around your drawing 
and put figures in the proper places to indicate elevations. 
Mark the ends of the profile with letters indicating the proper 
directions. Give your drawing a title, telling from what kind 
of map it is made. State vertical and horizontal scales. 

EXERCISE XXXI 

THE WEATHERING OF ROCKS 

Part I 

Use a brass ball and a ring which is just large enough to slip 
over it readily. Heat the ball in the flame of the Bunsen burner. 
Try to put it through the ring. What change has occurred? 
Account for this change. Let the ball cool and try again. What 
change do you observe ? What effect has heat upon brass ? 

Use the apparatus consisting of a freely moving lever, with a 
tense rubber string on the long arm and an iron wire on the 




o 



103 



104 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



other. (See Fig. 13.) Heat a portion of the wire by burning a 
match under it. What effect has heat upon iron ? How do iron 
and brass act upon cooling ? 

What effect do you suppose heat would have upon a rock ? 
How would a rock probably act upon cooling ? Do rocks exposed 
on hillsides suffer change of temperature ? How warm do rocks 




Fig. 13. Apparatus for showing the Effect of Heat on Iron 

Apply a match helow the wire at A and observe the 
movement of the^lever at B 

become when subjected to the heat of the sun during midsum- 
mer? Do you think the change of temperature from summer 
to winter would change the length of a rock half a mile in 
length? Which would be affected more, layers of rock on the 
surface or layers of rock underneath these ? 



Part II 

Make a freezing mixture consisting of two parts ice to one 
part salt. Allow it to stand until the brine is two or three 
inches deep. Fill a small test tube half full of water and put it 
in the freezing mixture, being careful not to allow any of the 
salt or brine to enter the test tube. Be sure that the water line 
in the test tube is below the level of the brine. Let it stand 
until it is frozen. Examine the test tube. What has occurred? 
Account for this. 



THE ASSORTING POWER OF WATER 105 

Water enters the minute crevices of rocks, fills small cracks, 
and freezes. What effect must this have upon the rock ? What 
portion of the rock will it affect the most? Will a stone monu- 
ment endure longer in a moist or a dry climate ? 

EXERCISE XXXII 
THE ASSORTING POWER OF WATER 

Mix clay, sand, and gravel. Put them in a bottle of water 
and shake well. Let the mixture stand for a time and watch 
the settling process. Which of the solids settles first? Let the 
bottle stand over night and observe again. Which settles last ? 
Make a drawing of the bottle, sediment, and water. 

Arrange an artificial stream with a steep slope in its upper 
course and a gentle slope in its lower course. Into the upper 
course put slowly some of the mixture of clay, sand, and gravel. 
Which one is deposited first ? Why ? Which is carried farthest ? 
Why? 

Look for a stream in which the above conditions exist, that 
is, one that changes from a steep slope in its upper course to a 
gentle slope in its lower course. Do you find a deposit of sedi- 
ment? Do you find materials deposited in order, as you did 
with the artificial stream ? If so, make a drawing or a map, 
indicating by dots, circles, or angular figures the size, shape, 
and distribution of the material. 

When a stream flows into the ocean, which part of its load do 
you think it deposits first? Which part is deposited farthest 
from shore ? 

EXERCISE XXXIII 

EXAMINATION OF ROCK WASTE 

Part I 

Examine a rocky cliff in a place where there has been no 
disturbing influence which would remove material from the 
base of the cliff. Of what is this collection of material made 



106 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

up? Examine the sand and gravel found here. What is the 
color ? Is it clean or dirty ? Are the edges sharp or rounded ? 
Do you find any vegetable matter mixed with the sand and 
gravel? Do you find any very fine particles which, if carried 
away by water, might form silt? 

Part II 

Visit the bed of a stream which has recently contained a 
somewhat brisk current. Locate a place which has sand and 
pebbles. Give the color of the sand and pebbles. Are they 
clean or dirty ? Are the edges sharp or rounded ? Do you find 
any vegetable matter mixed with the sand and pebbles? Do 
you find any very fine particles which you might call silt? 
Compare each answer with the corresponding answer in Part I, 
and account for- any difference. 

If a stream carries much sand and gravel, what effect will it 
have upon the rocks over which it flows ? How will this affect 
the sand and gravel ? 

EXERCISE XXXIV 
A WATERFALL 

Locate by map or description the waterfall which you examine. 
Locate the gorge with reference to the fall. What agent has 
been most effective in making the gorge ? What has become of 
the material which has been removed ? Which resists erosion 
better, the rock over which the water is falling or the material 
beneath this rock ? Compare the fall rock with the material 
underneath. What difference in structure would produce rapids 
instead of a waterfall? What effect is the flowing water having 
on the fall rock? What aids the water in this work? Has the 
fall always been at this point? What effect will a continued 
flow of water have upon the location of the fall? Define migra- 
tion as applied to a waterfall. 

Use cross-section paper and draw the following sections, using 
suitable horizontal and vertical scales: (1) cross section of the 



RIVER FLOOD PLAINS 107 

gorge and stream below the fall; (2) cross section of the gorge 
and stream above the fall; (3) longitudinal section of the gorge 
and stream through the fall. In drawing the longitudinal section 
do not represent the sides of the gorge. In all sections indicate the 
nature of the soil or rock by signs or shading chosen for the pur- 
pose. Give proper titles to your sections and indicate the scale. 
If no waterfall is accessible, refer to the Canyon (Wyo.) sheet 
(topographic map of the United States Geological Survey) and 
make the sections called for, using suitable horizontal and vertical 
scales. Answer as many of the questions as you can by referring 
to the map, or from other sources of information. 

EXERCISE XXXV 

RIVER FLOOD PLATXS 

Fart I 

Visit a river bottom. Describe color, texture, and depth of 
the soil. Is bottom land considered good farm land? Why? 
How does it differ from the adjacent higher land? Do you 
find any pebbles, bowlders, or other rounded rocks in the soil? 
If so, how do you suppose they came to be there ? How high 
does the water come in the times of the highest floods ? Does 
it make any deposit at this time ? If so, what is the nature 
of the deposit? How wide is this bottom or flood plain from 
bank to bank ? 

Part II 

Refer to the Donaldsonville (La.) sheet, topographic map of 
the United States Geological Survey. Give approximately the 
area in square miles of the region represented. (See the scale 
at the bottom of the sheet.) 

What river is here shown? What portion of the river? 
Locate Donaldsonville with reference to New Orleans. What 
portion of this quadrangle is a swamp? That part between 
the river and the swamp is the natural levee. How wide is 



108 PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHY MANUAL 

the natural levee, measuring across the river? How high 
is it above the swamp? What was the active agent in the 
formation of the natural levee? Explain why it is higher 
than the swamp. What direction do the small streams take ? 
Why do they not flow toward the river? Into what *do 
they finally flow ? Are the swamps of any value to men ? Of 
what disadvantage are they? Could they not be drained and 
utilized ? 

What is the contour interval of the map? (See the bottom 
of the sheet.) How can you distinguish a steep slope from a 
gentle one by aid of the contour lines ? (See Exercise XXIX, 
Part II.) Compare the steepness of the slope of the levee at 
Nita crevasse with the steepness just above or just below the 
crevasse. An artificial levee has been built at Nita crevasse. 
How long is the artificial part? (You can tell by its being so 
much narrower than the natural levee.) How high above the 
wagon road is the artificial part? What have you read about 
artificial levees elsewhere on the Mississippi river? What kind 
of formation do you find in the margin of the swamp north- 
east of Nita crevasse? Account for this. Read about the Nita 
crevasse in Davis' Elementary Physical Geography, pp. 264-265. 
Record what you read, putting it in your own words, but telling 
where you obtained the information. 

Where are most of the houses in this quadrangle situated? 
Compare the direction of the railroads and the general course 
of the stream. What is the principal industry of this region? 
(See p. 4 of Folio 1, and give the source of your information.) 

Part III 

Fig. 14 shows a part of the narrow flood plain of the Merced 
river in the Yosemite valley. Of what kind of material does 
the soil seem to be composed ? What evidences of fertility do 
you observe ? How many feet must the river rise in order to 
overflow the flood plain? In what time of year is this most 
likely to occur? 







o 



Ph 



109 



110 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE XXXVI 

MEANDERS 

Part I 

In the river flood plains which you visited in Exercise XXXV, 
nearer which bluff (right or left) does the river flow? How 
near does it approach this bluff ? Does the river cross the flood 
plain? Does it make large S-shaped curves? What name is 
given to such curves ? Observe the banks of the river near the 
sharpest point of a curve. Is the bank precipitous on the inside 
or the outside of the curve ? Describe the lay of the land which 
forms the bank on the inside of the curve. Of what kind of 
material is it composed ? Near the point of the curve does the 
main current of the river flow nearer the inside bank or the out- 
side bank? Which bank will it erode more rapidly? Does it 
make a deposit along either bank ? If so, on which side of the 
curve ? Why does it deposit material on this side ? Will con- 
tinued erosion by the river tend to make the curve more or less 
pronounced ? 

Note. A stream may be so small and narrow that you can step across 
it, and still it may have such curves as are discussed in this exercise. 

Part II 

In what part of Missouri is Marshall? How far is it from 
St. Louis ? In which direction does the river flow in the region 
represented on the Marshall sheet? (See topographic map of the 
United States Geological Survey.) Measure the entire length 
of the river represented here, following the main channel. Also 
measure the distance straight across and compare the two meas- 
urements. How wide is the river bottom or flood plain from 
bluff to bluff, just south of Carrollton? at Miami? at Bruns- 
wick ? at New Frankfort ? About what is the average width ? 
How many times does the river bend toward the north bluff? 
the south bluff? What name is given to these big S-shaped 



MEANDERS - 111 

curves ? Why does the river follow such a crooked course 
instead of flowing in a more direct one? Why is it called a 
graded river? What is meant by base level of erosion? 

On which side of Prunty island does the principal part of the 
stream flow ? Observe the sand in this part. Is it on the inside 
or outside of the curve ? On which side of the curve (inside or 
outside) is the main channel ? At the following bends in the river 
observe on which side the deposit of sand is found, and on which 
side the main channel is found: (1) between Prunty island and 
Miller island; (2) north of Miami; (3) northeast of Dewitt. 
Do you find it the same in each? Did you find it the same in 
Part I? Why is the sand deposited on the side on which you 
find it rather than on the other? On which side does the river 
flow more swiftly ? On which side will it cut the bank more 
rapidly ? What effect will this have on the size of the S-shaped 
curves? Observe the sharp curve near the east side of the 
quadrangle. What will be the fate of the peninsula projecting 
from the south side ? What will be the fate of that portion of 
the stream north of the peninsula ? How were Davis lake, Back- 
bone lake, and Grand Pass lake formed? 

Do you think erosion is greater on the bottom or the sides of 
the channel ? Is the rate of erosion of the stream greater or less 
than the rate of deposition ? What kind of material do you 
think is deposited here? Would such deposit make fertile soil? 
Do you think of any disadvantages that the owner of a farm in 
the bottom might suffer? Judging by the number of towns and 
villages, do you think this region is thickly settled? 

Part III 

Examine Fig. 14 and describe everything you see which is 
similar to the river forms discussed in Parts I and II of this 
exercise. How will the trees affect the rate of cutting of the 
bank by the stream? 



112 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE XXXVII 
ALLUVIAL CONES 

Iii what part of California is the region represented by the 
Cucamonga sheet? (See topographic map of the United States 
Geological Survey.) Pomona is the largest town shown on the 
sheet. How far is it from Los Angeles ? What portion of this 
"region is mountainous ? In what direction is the general slope 
in the southern part of this quadrangle? 

San Antonio canyon is a deep and narrow gorge cut in the 
southern slope of the mountain range. From an elevation of 
2600 feet down to the mouth of the canyon, (2250 feet) the 
creek has deposited great quantities of bowlders, pebbles, and 
other materials. This is called a wash. How is it represented 
on the map? Account for this deposit. How far south of the 
mouth of the canyon can you trace the wash? Describe the 
general shape of the contour lines for several miles south of 
the mouth of. the canyon. Does this indicate that the land 
surface is convex or concave? The San Bernardino base line 
crosses the 1500-feet contour line north of North Ontario and 
again north of Claremont. What is the elevation of the base 
line midway between these two points of crossing? Does this 
prove or disprove your statement about the convex or concave 
surface which is represented here ? Are river valleys usually 
convex or concave ? Why is this one as it is ? What name is 
given to such a land formation ? Of what kind of material is 
it composed ? What difference in kind of deposit would you 
expect to find in the wash within the canyon and on the slopes 
at Pomona and Ontario ? (See Exercise XXXIII.) Is the soil 
at the latter places fertile ? How do you know ? Describe the 
wash from the mouth of the canyon to the town of Claremont 
and the A. T. & S. F. railroad. What name is given to the 
smaller, branching parts ? Account for their formation. In 
what respects is an alluvial cone similar to a delta? In what 
respects is it different? 



ALLUVIAL COSES 



113 



Near the point where Stoddard canyon enters San Antonio 
canyon the stream becomes intermittent, and near the mouth of 
the canyon it disappears altogether. What becomes of the water? 
Between Pomona and Chino a little stream rises. Where does 
the water probably come from ? Throughout this alluvial cone 
much water is pumped from deep w r ells and is used for irriga- 
tion. Where does this water come from? 

Determine the elevation of the bed of the stream where Bear 
canyon enters San Antonio canyon. What is the fall in feet 




Fig. 15. A Debris Fan at Glenwood Springs, Colorado, formed at the 
Mouth of a Side Gorge 

Grand river in the foreground 



from this point to £he mouth of San Antonio canyon? What is 
the average fall in feet per mile ? What is the average fall in 
feet per mile from the mouth of San Antonio canyon due south 
to the edge of the map? Which is the steeper slope, above 
or below the mouth of the canyon ? 

Name the canyons represented on the Cucamonga sheet, 
whose streams are building up cones. What does the author 



114 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

of Folio 2 say about the extent of alluvial cones in south- 
ern California and elsewhere? Give the conditions of slopes 
and climate which are favorable to the formation of alluvial 
cones. 

Fig. 15 shows a debris fan or alluvial cone formed by a 
tributary of the Grand river, at Glenwood Springs, Colorado. 
About what angle does the slope of the fan form with the 
horizontal? What, if anything, is there here which would 
lead you to believe that the slope of the side canyon is steeper 
than that of the fan? 

EXERCISE XXXVIII 
A REGION m YOUTH 

Locate Yellowstone park on a large map of the United States. 
Give the part of the state in which it is located. What stream 
drains Yellowstone lake ? What is the general direction of that 
portion of the stream which is shown on the Canyon sheet? 
(See topographic map of the United States Geological Survey.) 
Into what does this river flow? What is the elevation above 
sea level of the surface of Yellowstone lake ? (See small brown 
figures near the printed name.) What is the elevation of the 
river at the lowest point shown on this map? (Count down 
from the contour line of 6000 feet.) Measure in miles the length 
of this portion of the river and calculate the fall per mile. 

How many miles from Yellowstone lake are the falls ? Give 
height of each of the falls. The Grand Canyon of the Yellow- 
stone begins at the falls. How deep is this canyon opposite the 
letter a in the word " canyon " ? How wide is it at this point ? 
Does this river have a flood plain? Which is probably greater, 
the rate of erosion or of deposition? Is the. stream capable of 
carrying a large load? Give reasons for your answer. What 
effect will continued erosion probably have upon the width 
and depth of the canyon? 

Count the number of tributaries on one side of the Yellow- 
stone river from Yellowstone lake to the northwest corner of 



A REGION IN YOUTH 



115 



the quadrangle, omitting those not named. What is the average 
distance in miles between the mouths of these tributaries ? If 
Yellowstone river deepens its channel at the outlet of the lake, 
how will the water level of the lake be affected, all other con- 
ditions remaining unchanged? If the falls should migrate as 
far upstream as the lake and disappear in the lake, how would 
the water level of the lake be affected, all other conditions 




Fig. 16. A Terrace, 150 Feet in Height, cut by the Santa Ana River, 
Southern California 

Some of the hest orange groves in the world are located on this terrace 



remaining unchanged? Lakes are an evidence of uncompleted 
work or imperfect drainage. What other evidence of imperfect 
drainage do you find on this quadrangle ? (Look along Pelican 
creek, which flows into Yellowstone lake, and along Slough 
creek, in the extreme northern part of the quadrangle.) If 
draining this region were the task of the Yellowstone river, 
would you say it has much or little yet to do? 




116 



A REGION IN MATURITY 117 

The region represented on the large map 2 is a great plateau. 
It is being cut by canyons into smaller plateaus. Determine 
and record the average elevation of each of the following pla- 
teaus (see large map) : (1) Buffalo plateau ; (2) Mirror plateau ; 
(3) Two Ocean plateau ; (4) Pitchstone plateau ; (5) Madison 
plateau ; (6) Central plateau. Which is highest ? Do you detect 
any slope away from this plateau? If so, in what direction? 
Observe the picture of the canyon of the Yellowstone. (See 
Fig. 17.) The background represents one of these plateaus. 
Describe the sky line. If one were standing on this plateau, 
the higher portions would appear as mere undulations of the 
surface. Distant canyons would not be visible. Why ? What 
effects will continued erosion probably have upon the general 
appearance of this plateau? 

Why is it appropriate to say that this stream and this region 
are in their youth ? 

EXERCISE XXXIX 

A REGION IN MATURITY 

Part I 

Locate Charleston (W.Va.), giving the river on which it is 
located and the distance from the point where it flows into the 
Ohio river. Count the tributaries on one side of the Kanawha 
below Charleston (see the Charleston sheet, topographic map of 
the United States Geological Survey), omitting those without 
printed names. Are any of them intermittent ? What would you 
infer about the rainfall of this region ? Measure the distance 
along the river from Charleston to the last tributary which is 
shown. Give the average distance in miles between tributaries. 
Compare this with that shown on the Yellowstone canyon sheet. 

What is the contour interval? Are the contour lines near 
together or far apart? If the contour interval were 20 feet, as 

1 Assembled topographic sheets of the United States Geological Survey, as 
shown on page 170. 



118 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

it is on some sheets, would the lines here be more or less numer- 
ous ? Would they be nearer each other or farther apart ? Are 
the sides of the valleys steep or gentle in slope ? Are the 
divides pronounced or indistinct? Is the drainage perfect or 
imperfect? Characterize this region as level, rolling, or broken. 
What kind of soil has this region? Give reasons for your 
answer. In what direction do the wagon roads run? Why? 
How far across country could one go without crossing a wagon 
road ? Do you think this region is thickly or sparsely settled ? 

Part II 

Hickory Knob is about two miles from the north boundary 
of the quadrangle and five miles from the west boundary. Its 
elevation is printed in brown just above the name. How high 
above sea level is it? Find the elevation of the following 
knobs, which are nearly in a straight line extending south from 
Hickory Knob, and make a list of them with their elevations : 
(1) Hickory Knob; (2) Big Rocks, about nine miles south of 
Hickory Knob; (3) Sugar Camp Knob, nine or ten miles south 
of Big Rocks ; (4) Blue Knob, five miles southwest of Sugar 
Camp Knob ; (5) an unnamed knob about three miles from the 
southwest corner of the quadrangle. Suppose this region was 
once a plateau as high as the tops of these knobs, and suppose 
the original plateau restored as it was at that time. How high 
was the plateau at the south? at the north? Which way did 
it slope? What was the fall per mile? Does the Kanawha 
river now have as great a slope as the plateau that you have 
described ? 

The highest point near the southeast corner of the quadrangle 
is in Fork Ridge, three miles from the east boundary and seven 
or eight miles from the south boundary. How high is it ? Com- 
pare this with the elevation of Blue Knob, which is almost due 
west of Fork Ridge. The highest point near the northeast corner 
of the quadrangle is about 1300 feet above sea level. Compare 
this with the elevation of Hickory Knob at the northwest corner. 
Do you detect a slope toward either east or west? What was 



A REGION IN OLD AGE 119 

the true direction of the slope of the original plateau ? Compare 
this with the general direction of the Kanawha river. Henry 
Gannett says that this region was once just such a plateau as 
we have described. How has it been changed from a plateau 
to the skeleton of a plateau that you now see on the map ? 

EXERCISE XL 
A REGION IX OLD AGE 

In what part of Kansas is Caldwell? What is the contour 
interval of the Caldwell sheet? (See topographic map of the 
United States Geological Survey.) If the contour interval were 
100 feet, as it is on the Charleston sheet, how would the number 
of lines here compare with what it is ? Are the slopes gentle 
or steep? Are the valleys wide or narrow? Are the divides 
pronounced or indistinct? How is it possible to build railroads 
in so many different directions? What directions do the wagon 
roads take? How far apart are they? In which does the land 
lie better for farming, this or the Charleston quadrangle ? 

The author of this folio tells us that the Caldwell region has 
gone through the stages of youth and maturity. What proof of 
this does he find in the position of the rocks? What is a pene- 
plain? (See the text-books.) What is meant by base level of 
erosion ? Account for the big bends in the Chikaskia river below 
Argonia. Account for the lake or pond just west of Caldwell. 

In this region the average annual rainfall is about 20 inches, 
an amount very much less than that of the Charleston quad- 
rangle. In which region would erosion be greater if it depended 
upon this alone ? In the Caldwell quadrangle the surface of the 
land is almost naked, whereas in the Charleston quadrangle it is 
covered with dense forests. In which region would erosion be 
greater if it depended upon this alone? In the Caldwell region 
the underlying and outcropping rocks are much softer than those 
of the Charleston region. In which would erosion be greater if 
it depended upon this alone? In which would it be greater if 
it depended alone upon the steepness of the slopes? Which of 



120 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

these conditions of erosion can man modify ? What effect does 
erosion have upon the fertility of the surface that is being eroded ? 

EXERCISE XLI 
THE LIFE HISTORY OF A RIYER 

Make an outline of the life history of an ideal river. Make it 
in three parts as follows : (1) a young river ; (2) a mature river ; 
(3) an old river. 

In each part consider : (1) steepness of slope ; (2) swiftness 
of current; (3) character of load; (4) cutting power; (5) num- 
ber of tributaries ; (6) shape of cross section of valley ; (7) per- 
fect or imperfect drainage ; (8) fall per mile from source to 
mouth ; (9) longitudinal profile ; (10) presence of lakes, canyons, 
waterfalls, rapids, flood plains, meanders, delta. 

EXERCISE XLII 
THE DRAINAGE AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES 

Use an outline map of the United States and draw the divides 
around the following drainage basins : St. Lawrence, Mississippi, 
Columbia, Colorado, Great Basin. Draw also the divides bound- 
ing the following slopes : Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico east of the 
Mississippi river, Gulf of Mexico west of the Mississippi river, 
Pacific slope. 

Color these regions so that no two adjacent shall have the 
same color. Rub in the colors well. Write an explanation of 
colors, or legend, in an appropriate place on the map. 

EXERCISE XLIII 

THE MIGRATION OF DIVIDES 

What large river is shown on the Doylestown (Pa.-N. J.) 
sheet? (See topographic map of the United States Geological 
Survey.) About how far from Philadelphia is this portion of 
the river? In what direction from Philadelphia? 



THE MIGRATION OF DIVIDES 121 

Tinicum creek flows into Delaware river near the northern 
boundary of the quadrangle. It is a crooked stream, flowing 
first toward the southeast and then toward the northeast. What 
is the elevation of the first point of its headwaters, which is 
shown on the north side of the map ? What is the average fall 
in feet per mile ? 

Tohickon creek is a very much longer stream, which flows 
into the river at Point Pleasant. What is the elevation of the 
first point of this stream, which is shown on the west side of 
the map ? What is the rate of fall ? Which is the more vigor- 
ous stream, Tohickon or Tinicum creek ? 

Near the large bend in Tinicum creek there is a small trib- 
utary which enters from the southwest. This tributary has its 
headwaters near a fork in the road, about a mile and a half 
southeast of Ottsville. At this point the road is on the divide 
between Tinicum and Tohickon creeks. How high above sea 
level is the divide at this point? What is the elevation of 
Tohickon creek near this point? How many feet would have 
to be removed from the divide to make it the same level as the 
water in Tohickon creek ? 

Which stream will erode its basin more rapidly, all conditions 
except the slope being equal? What effect will this have upon 
the size of its basin ? upon the size of the other basin ? In 
which direction will the divide probably move at the point 
southeast of Ottsville? If the divide should move a mile in 
the direction which you indicate, what change would occur in 
the course of Tohickon creek? This action of the stream is 
called beheading. Which stream is in danger of being beheaded ? 
How large an area in square miles is liable to be cut off in this 
way ? Consider only the region shown on this map. 

If these streams were furnishing power for manufacturing, 
how might the result of migration of divides affect the 
industry? 



122 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE XLIV 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

With a string tie a stone to the hook on one pan of the 
specific-gravity balance. Weigh the stone. Place the balance 
and the stone in such a position that the stone will be com- 
pletely immersed in a vessel of water, but do not allow the 
scale pan to touch the water. With the stone in the water, 
weigh it again. Does it weigh more or less than it did before ? 
How much? Why does it weigh less under one condition than 
under the other? 

If the stone should be removed, the space that it now occupies 
would be filled with water. At present it displaces the water. 
Compare the volume which it displaces with the volume of the 
stone. The volume of the water displaced weighs just as much 
as the difference between the two weights of the stone obtained 
above. You may be called upon to prove this some day ; now 
we must accept it without proof. Give a rule for finding the 
weight of the water displaced by a stone immersed in it. Give 
a rule for finding the weight of water equal in volume to the 
volume of a stone. 

Compare the weight of the stone with the weight of an equal 
volume of water. The ratio of the former to the latter is called 
the specific gravity. Define specific gravity. Give a rule for find- 
ing the specific gravity of a stone. The last rule is the important 
one. Remember it. 

What is the specific gravity of a stone which weighs just as 
much as an equal volume of water? (If in doubt, assume that 
each weighs 50 grams, and calculate it according to your rule.) 
What is the specific gravity of a stone which weighs less than 
an equal volume of water? (Give answer as equal to, greater, 
or less than that of the preceding.) 

In writing your notes draw or describe the apparatus. 



VOLCANIC ROCKS 123 

EXERCISE XLV 

VOLCANIC ROCKS 

Part I 

Examine obsidian, pumice, and vesicular basalt. Describe 
each according to the following schedule : 

Color. Distinguish between dull black and lustrous black, 
between light gray and dark gray. 

Structure. Is it solid, porous, fibrous, crystalline, or amor- 
phous ? 

Weight. Give specific gravity. 

Method of formation. Read text-books, reference books, cyclo- 
pedias, and dictionary. 

Remarks. Anything that does not readily come under the 
items given above, especially locality from which your specimen 
comes. 

Part II 

Fig. 18 shows a mudhole which has dried up. Describe the 
effects which have been produced. How deep have you ever 
known such mud cracks to be? Fig. 19 shows a lava flow in 
which the cracks, or joint planes, extend very deep. Tell what 
you know of the cause of their formation. 



EXERCISE XLVI 

VOLCANIC TEAKS, PLATEAUS, AND NECKS 

Refer to the Mt. Taylor (N. M.) sheet. (See topographic map 
of the United States Geological Survey.) In what part of New 
Mexico is Mt. Taylor? What is the highest point on the moun- 
tain? Two or three miles east of this highest point there is 
a stream formed by a dozen or more small tributaries. Trace 
with a pointer the divide surrounding the headwaters of these 



124 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



tributaries. This divide is the rim of an ancient crater. What 
shape was the crater? How far is it from the rim on one side 
to the rim on the opposite side ? At how many points about the 
crater does the elevation reach 11,000 feet? What is the eleva- 
tion of the river bed at the point where it flows through the 
rim of the crater? Near the center of the crater is a circular 
hill. What is the elevation of its summit above sea level ? 
How high is it above the stream which flows near its northern 




Fig. 18. Mud Cracks in the Bed of an Intermittent Stream, 
Southern California 



side ? This hill is a volcanic neck. How has it been made ? 
(See picture and cross section on the page opposite the map in 
Folio 2.) How deep is the crater from the rim to the small 
level area just west of the neck? 

What is the average elevation above sea level of the mesa 
Sierra Chivato? of the region 10 or 15 miles northwest of 
Willow Spring? (Count down from the contour line of 7000 




Fig. 19. Columns of Basalt from an Old Lava Plow on the North Fork 
of the San Joaquin River, California 



125 



126 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

feet.) How much higher is the mesa than the surrounding 
region ? Is the descent from the mesa abrupt or gentle ? With a 
pointer trace the outline of the mesa. In which direction does 
it extend farthest from Mt. Taylor? The author of Folio 2 
says, " This is a volcanic mesa, formed by outflows of lava 
from the mountain and probably from other craters upon 
the surface of the mesa." Across the Puerco river northeast 
of the Sierra Chivato is Cabazon peak, a volcanic neck more 
than 1000 feet high. How many volcanic necks do you see 
between the Sierra Chivato and the Puerco river? Volcanic 
necks " were formed by the forcing of volcanic rocks, in a 
molten condition, up through overlying stratified beds. These 
beds, which were much softer than the lava, have since been 
eroded away, leaving the neck of lava standing by itself." 

EXERCISE XLVII 
A CRATER 

Refer to the Crater lake (Ore.) special sheet. (See topographic 
map of the United States Geological Survey.) Locate Mt. 
Mazama. For what is it remarkable ? What shape is Crater 
lake ? What is the distance across it from east to west ? How 
large is the drainage basin which contributes its waters to Crater 
lake? What is the highest point on the rim surrounding the 
lake? At what point would the water first find an outlet if the 
surface of the lake should rise above its present level? What is 
the elevation above sea level at the surface of the lake? How 
far is this below the top of the rim which surrounds the lake ? 
Compare the steepness of the slope on the inside of the rim 
with that on the outside. Could one easily ascend these slopes? 
Where is the steepest part? See the picture of this steepest 
part on the page opposite the map in Folio 2. 

Crater lake is most easily reached by a wagon road from the 
south, but there is a trail approaching it from the north. Com- 
pare the steepness of the lower part of the trail up as far as the 
first spring with the slope of a straight line from this spring to 



GLACIERS 127 

Llao rock. Observe the section at the bottom of the sheet, use 
cross-section paper, and draw a similar section from nor.th to 
south along the meridian of 122 degrees, 5 minutes. Let your 
section extend one mile beyond the lake both north and south. 
Use the same horizontal scale as on the map, vertical scale one 
square to 1000 feet. (Blue figures show depths in feet below 
the surface of the lake.) 

How does the author of this folio account for the formation of 
Crater lake ? If you have read anything else of special interest 
or value concerning this lake, record it here. Tell where you 
read it. 

EXERCISE XLVIII 

GLACIERS 

Refer to the Shasta (Cal.) special sheet. (See topographic map 
of the United States Geological Survey.) Locate Mt. Shasta. 
What do you find near the summit of Mt. Shasta which you 
have not seen on any other mountain that we have studied? 
How are glaciers indicated on the map? How many do you 
find on Mt. Shasta? On which side of the mountain are the 
largest ones found? In which direction from the summit is 
Hotlum glacier? In which direction must its ice be moving? 
Which part must melt fastest? Is Hotlum widest in the upper, 
middle, or lower part ? How do you think the thickness of the 
ice in the lower part compares with the thickness in the mid- 
dle? Give reasons for your answer. What effect must the 
moving ice have upon the surface of the mountain over which 
it is moving? What effect does the friction on the sides of the 
valley have upon the rate of movement of the ice along the sides 
of the glacier? Note the blue lines which cross the glacier. 
Which way do they bend in crossing? Which part of the 
glacier probably moves fastest ? What effect will this have upon 
the texture of the ice ? 

How many little streams take their rise just below the lower 
part of Hotlum glacier? Where do you suppose they get their 
supply of water? What does the area of small brown dots below 



128 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Bolam glacier represent? How does the front of Bolam glacier 
differ in shape from the front of Whitney glacier? Do you 
know of any ancient glacier which was lobed? When a glacier 
spreads out at the bottom, as Hotlum glacier does, will the 
strise which it makes be parallel or divergent? 

" In the United States, outside of Alaska, there are not many 
mountains sufficiently high to have glaciers upon them. In the 
Rocky mountains perennial fields of ice and snow are almost 
unknown except in northern Montana. There are several small 
glaciers in the high Sierra of California, and in the Cascade 
range are found many glaciers, some of which are of consider- 
able magnitude. The summits of Rainier, Adams, Hood, and 
Shasta are practically surrounded by glaciers." Locate Rainier, 
Adams, and Hood. 

EXERCISE XLIX 
TOPOGRAPHIC FORMS DUE TO GLACIATION 

Refer to the Sun Prairie (Wis.) and adjacent sheets. (See topo- 
graphic map of the United States Geological Survey.) The Sun 
Prairie sheet represents a series of glacial hills which are com- 
posed of unstratified drift material, sand, and gravel. How high 
are these hills above the surrounding country? What is their 
general shape? How wide are they? Are their tops sharp or 
rounded ? " These hills, or drumlins, were made not at the 
end of the glacier where it melts, but along and under the 
bed. Some projection of the ground over which it was passing 
probably checked the current of the ice and made it deposit 
part of its load." What is the general direction of the trend 
of the drumlins? What does this indicate as to the direction 
of the movement of the glacier ? 

Observe the position of the Sun Prairie quadrangle as shown 
on the large map. 1 See the large map for answers to the follow- 
ing questions. What is the general trend of the drumlins along 

1 Assembled topographic sheets of the United States Geological Survey, as 
given on page 170. 



TOPOGRAPHIC FORMS DUE TO GLACIATION 129 



the east bank of the Crawfish river, west of Watertown? along 
Rock river, east and southeast of Watertown? along Ashippum 
river north of ( )conomowoc? These drumlins were formed under 
the Green Bay lobe of the last great glacier which swept down 
over the United States, at a point not far from the southern 
boundary of the lobe. How do you account for the different 
directions which they take ? 

Do you find the trend from 5 to 15 miles east and southeast 
of Oconomowoc to be the same as that north of Ashippum 




Fig. 20. Section of a Glacial Moraine in the Rocky Mountains on 
the Line of the Great Northern Railroad 

river? As the great ice sheet moved southward it melted at 
the southern border. When the melting exceeded the southward 
movement, the front of the glacier retreated northward. When 
the melting just equaled the melting of the ice, the front of the 
glacier remained stationary. One of these pauses on its retreat 
occurred in the region southeast of Oconomowoc, also in the 
region shown on the Eagle sheet in Folio 1, and in others to the 
south and west. From what source do you suppose the material 
came which makes up these hills southeast of Oconomowoc? 




130 



LAKES 131 

What name is given to such a formation? Why are these hills 
so irregular? How does this glacial formation differ from drum- 
lins ? Do you find any indication of a general trend in the hills 
represented on the Eagle sheet? If so, what relation does it 
sustain to the direction of the trend of the nearest drumlins? 
What angle would you expect the end of a glacier to form 
with the direction of its movements ? 

What evidence of youthful drainage do you find ? If these 
streams are young, how do you account for their extreme 
crookedness in many cases? They are called consequent streams. 
Why? 

Fig. 20 shows a section of a glacial moraine. Describe the 
general shape of the slopes of this hill. Do you find any evi- 
dences of stratification ? Is stratification characteristic of glacial 
deposits ? Account for this. Observe the bowlders in the fore- 
ground at the left. Describe their size and shape. Are they 
rounded or angular ? Account for this. What, besides bowlders, 
do you find in this glacial deposit ? 

EXERCISE L 
LAKES 
Part I 

Visit a lake, make careful observations, and, if necessary, seek 
information from residents of the vicinity. 

Is the water level constant throughout the year? Do you 
note any changes of the average water level from year to year? 
If so, do you find evidence that it is higher than formerly? 
What evidence? Do you find evidence that it is lower than 
formerly ? If so, what evidence ? Account for any change 
that may have occurred in the water level. Do you find evi- 
dence that the lake is being filled with sediment? If so, what 
evidence? Is the outlet a vigorous stream? Are its tributaries 
or its outlet the greater menace to the life of the lake? Of 
what value to man is this lake ? 



132 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Pakt II 

Refer to a map of North America and compare the number of 
lakes in Canada east of the parallel of 100 degrees west longi- 
tude with the number of lakes in the southern part of the United 
States. Refer to a map of the United States and compare the 
number of lakes east of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers and 




Fig. 22. Bear Lake, at an Elevation of 6700 Feet, in San Bernardino 
Mountains of Southern California 

The banks are so steep that the zones of vegetation are not marked 

north of the parallel of 40 degrees north latitude with the num- 
ber of lakes south of this region. How is the great number in 
one region accounted for? 

Lakes have been called the settling basins of the livers. What 
is there in this name which is appropriate? Considering this 
alone, which would you think would have clearer waters, the 
St. Lawrence river or the Missouri? How does this agree with 
what you know of the clearness of the water of the two rivers ? 

Of what value to commerce are the Great Lakes ? 



LAKES 



13; 



to the 
Which 
former 
toward 



Pakt III 

Examine Fig. 21. Locate the sedges with reference 
lake. Compare the positions of sedges and shrubs, 
occupy drier ground, the shrubs or the pine trees ? The 
outlet of the lake can be seen in the background, leading 
the right. What kind 
of growth now fills it ? 
From this picture, or 
from other sources of 
information, arrange 
the following in the 
order of their natural 
places of growth, 
beginning with the 
aquatic plants: pine 
trees, water lilies, wil- 
lows, sedges, grasses. 



Part IV 

Refer to the Nor- 
folk (Va.) sheet (see 
topographic map of 
the United States 
Geological Survey), 
and read the descrip- 
tion in Folio 2. What 
belts of vegetation are 

found around the margin of the Dismal swamp? Describe the 
cypress trees by referring to the picture in the folio. Accord- 
ing to the author of this folio, which is encroaching on the 
other, the swamp or the region of vegetation? How is man 
assisting in this process? To what does the soil of this 
swamp owe its fertility? How is peat formed? How is 
peat sometimes used ? To what use are men putting Lake 
Drummond ? 




Fig. 23. Map of the Ancient Lake Bonneville 
with its Modern Representatives, Great Salt 
Lake and Sevier Lake 



134 



PHYSICAL GEOG-EAPHY MANUAL 



EXERCISE LI 



EXTINCT LAKES 



Refer to the map, Fig. 23. What is the length in miles of 
Great Salt lake ? What was the greatest length of Lake Bonne- 
ville, according to this map ? Give the evidences, so far as you 
know them, which go to show that Great Salt lake is a remnant 
of Lake Bonneville. Was this change in size due to drainage, 
filling, or evaporation? How do you know? If Lake Bonne- 
ville was a fresh-water lake, how do you account for the salt- 
ness of Great Salt lake ? 

According to the map, Fig. 24, how far beyond its present 
limit did the Gulf of California extend? How far was the 
mouth of the Col- 




orado river from 
its present mouth? 
The delta was 
built up, thus cut- 
ting off the head 
of the gulf. The 
river followed one 
of its distributaries 
to the lower por- 
tion of the gulf. 
Was the newly 
made lake salt or 
fresh ? Rainfall is 
very light in this 
region, averaging 
from 2 to 5 inches 
annually ; evap- 
oration is very 
rapid. Would time make this lake more or less salt? 

Except for an occasional overflow of the Colorado river, 
this region at present is entirely dry. What do you suppose 
has become of the salt? In what part would it probably be 



Fig. 24. Map of the Bed of the Ancient Salton Sea, 
about 300 Feet below Sea Level, showing the Proba- 
ble Former Extent of the Gulf of California and the 
Delta of the Colorado River 



SOLIDS IN SOLUTION 



135 



found in the largest quantities? Do you think this part would 
make good agricultural land? Why? Some remarkably fertile 
soil is found near the Mexican boundary line and in the south- 
ern portion of this old lake bed. Explain why it is fertile. 
Water for irriga- 
tion is brought 
from the Colorado 
river. Does the 
land slope in the 
right direction to 
aid in transport- 
ing the water? 

Read about 
Death valley, tell 
what of economic 
importance is 
found there, and 
account for its 
presence. 

Locate the Dead 
sea. How far be- 
low sea level is its 

present surface? (See Fig. 25.) How deep is the water? If 
this sea should dry up, how far would its bed be below sea 
level ? How far below the level of Jerusalem ? 

Note any other extinct lakes that you think worthy of 
special mention. 




Fig. 25. Contour Map of the Dead Sea, 
Palestine, Western Asia 



EXERCISE LII 
SOLIDS IX SOLUTION 



Fill a small beaker half full of water. Add a very little 
powdered alum and stir the mixture. Can you see the alum ? 
What has become of it? It is said to be in solution; water is 
called a *<>lvent and alum is said to be soluble. Add powdered 



136 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 




alum slowly, stirring all the time. Continue this until the alum 
no longer dissolves, but settles to the bottom of the beaker. 
The solution is now said to be saturated. Define saturated solu- 
tion. Your beaker now contains a saturated solution, with a 
little of the undissolved solid as a sediment in the bottom. Put 
this over the flame of the Bunsen burner and heat it until it 
boils. What becomes of the sediment? 
Is cold or hot water capable of holding 
a larger amount of alum in solution? 
Make a very strong solution of alum in 
water and pour it into a beaker with the 
end of a string hanging down into it, as 
shown in Fig. 26. Let the beaker stand 
for a day or two until part of the solution 
evaporates. Remove the string from the 
solution. Describe what you see. What 
effect have cooling and evaporation upon 
a saturated solution? How could you 
separate a solid in solution from its 
solvent ? 
Arrange a piece of apparatus as shown in Fig. 27. Partly 
fill the bottle with a saturated solution of photographers' hypo 
(sodium hyposulphite). Set the adjustable pinchcock so that 
the solution will drop very slowly — not more than two drops 
per minute. Allow the process to continue for several days. 
Describe and explain the method of formation of the material 
which collects on the glass plate below. 

Crush to powder some marble in a mortar. Put some of 
the powder in a small beaker and fill the beaker with water. 
Let this stand for a day or two. Carefully pour off the water 
and filter it. Boil the filtered water in an evaporating dish, 
evaporating it to dryness. Do you find any residue in the 
evaporating dish? Is marble soluble in water? Put some of 
the powdered marble in a small beaker and fill the beaker with 
water. Lead a tube from a carbon dioxide generator into this 
beaker of water and let the gas slowly bubble up through 



Fig. 26. A Beaker ar- 
ranged, for the Forma- 
tion of Crystals of Alum 



VEINS 



137 



the water. Continue this process for a day or two. Again 
pour off the water, filter, and evaporate to dryness. Do 
you find any residue 
in the evaporating 
dish? Is marble solu- 
ble in water which has 
carbon dioxide in it? 
Water with carbon 
dioxide is responsible 
for the removal of 
most of the material 
in the making of cav- 
erns in limestone. 

Examine a stalac- 
tite. Describe shape, 
structure, color, and 
anything else worthy 
of note. Apply a 
small drop of hydro- 
chloric acid to the 
stalactite and describe 
the result. Efferves- 
cence is a proof that 
it has lime in its com- 
position. Describe 
the process of the formation of a stalactite. If possible, visit a 
cavern and describe what you see. Illustrate by drawings 
or photographs. 




F* 



. A Bottle and Siphon arranged for 
the Formation of Stalactites 



Blow into the open tube until the solution flows from 
the siphon, and then adjust the pincheoek 



EXERCISE LIII 
VEINS 



How are rocks fractured ? (See Exercise XXXI ; also Topic 
35, Causes of Mountains, p. 16, and Topic 62, Earthquakes, 
p. 27.) How deep into the earth do cracks and fissures extend? 
Underground water may follow these fissures wherever they 



138 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

go. As water descends to great depths what change of tempera- 
ture does it undergo ? What effect does this change of tempera- 
ture have upon its ability to dissolve rocks ? (See Exercise LII.) 
If water is thoroughly saturated with material in solution, what 
effect will be produced by cooling it? This is the process by 
which cracks and fissures in the rocks are filled. What materials 
may be dissolved by water ? Why are veins of interest to the 
miner? Distinguish between the manner of formation of veins 
and dikes. (See Topic 61, Volcanic Phenomena, p. 26.) 

Examine veins in a cliff or in specimens which you have in 
the laboratory. What kind of material do you find in the rock 




'JFig. 28. A Rock with Intersecting Veins 

which contains the veins ? Of what kind of material are the veins 
composed ? Which is harder, the veins or the rock in which they 
occur? Which will wear away faster when subjected to the 
action of the weather? Give the width of the widest vein which 
you find ; of the narrowest. Are the veins which you find in 
any one cliff of equal age ? Give reason for your answer. 

Illustrate by drawings what you see, showing as many facts 
as 'possible about veins. 



DENSITY AND TEMPERATURE OF SEA WATER 139 



EXERCISE LIV 

DENSITY AND TEMPERATURE OF SEA WATER 

Part I 

Weigh accurately about 100 grams of sea water. Boil and 
evaporate to dryness. Weigh the residue and calculate the per- 
centage of solid matter. From the books determine what part 
of the solid matter is common salt (chloride of sodium). Accord- 
ing to this, how much common salt in 100 pounds of sea water? 

Part II 





Temperature 


Density 




Bay 


Ocean 


Bay 


Ocean 


July 


77 
58.5 


68 
60 


1.0238 
1.024--) 


1.0228 
1.0230 



The accompanying table gives the temperature and density 
of the water in San Diego bay and in the open sea for July and 
January. In which is the water warmer during the month of 
July? Account for this. In which is it warmer in January? 
Account for this. In which is the temperature more nearly 
uniform throughout the year? According to this table, is the 
water denser in the bay or in the ocean? The density of the 
water in the Red sea and in the Mediterranean sea is said to be 
from 1.027 to 1.028. Account for this great density. 

Part III 

According to the table in Part II, is the water denser when 
it is warm or when it is cold ? Which has greater density, water 
or ice ? How do you know? (See Exercise XXXI.) Suppose 
ice should sink upon freezing. How would this affect its rate 
of melting under the influence of the sun? How might this 
affect the climate of a region near a large lake of fresh water? 



140 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE LV 
TIDES 

Refer to the United States tide tables, select some port, and 
note the times and heights of tides for a period of one month or 
more. In what units are the heights of tides given ? From what 
is the height of a tide reckoned ? 

Use cross-section paper. Draw a line lengthwise through the 
center of the sheet to represent mean lower low water. Use 
vertical distances to represent the heights of the tides, scale 
1 centimeter to 1 foot. Use horizontal distances to represent 
time, scale 1 millimeter to 6 hours. Use lead pencil and place 
a dot at the proper point to represent the time and height of 
each of the four tides for the first day of your observations. 
Use ink and connect these points consecutively, making a 
straight line from each to the one immediately following. Do 
the same for the following day and proceed in a similar manner 
with all data for the time of observation. 

How far in feet is mean lower low water below mean sea 
level ? (See the note at the bottom of the page in the tide table.) 
Draw a line to represent mean sea level. By referring to the 
almanac determine the dates of the moon's phases during the 
time of observations of the tides. On the horizontal line just 
above the highest high tide make drawings to represent these 
different phases of the moon, being careful to get them in the 
spaces for the correct dates. Give your diagram a title. 

At what phase of the moon are the tides highest ? At what 
phase are they lowest ? At what phase do the tides have great- 
est range ? What name is given to these tides ? At what phase 
of the moon do the tides have least range ? What name is given 
to these tides? Make drawings to show the positions of the 
earth, the sun, and the moon at the time of greatest range of 
tides ; at the time of least range of tides. What causes tides ? 
How do you know? 




141 



142 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE LVI 
OCEAN CURRENTS 

Observe the pilot chart of the North Atlantic ocean. How is 
the direction of the ocean currents indicated ? (See the explana- 
tion near the lower left-hand corner of the map.) What is the 
direction of the current at each of the following points : (1) south- 
west of the Cape Verde islands, 16 degrees north, 25 degrees west? 
(2) on the equator off the east coast of South America? (3) from 
10 to 20 degrees north latitude in the Pacific ocean? Compare 
these directions with the directions of the prevailing winds at 
these points, as given by the pilot charts. Compare the courses 
of the ocean currents of the world with the directions of the 
prevailing winds, as shown by the maps, Fig. 29 and Fig. 30. 
What do the books give as the cause of ocean currents ? 

What is the direction of the current in the Caribbean sea? 
in the Atlantic ocean between Florida and the Bahamas ? What 
name is given to this current? What is the direction of this 
current in^the Atlantic ocean at a point 40 degrees north and 
50 degrees west? Trace this current still further and describe 
its general shape east of this point. What is the direction of 
the current off the east coast of Labrador and Newfoundland ? 
Trace this current along the coast as far as you can. Is it a 
warm or a cold current? What effect does it have on the tem- 
perature of the east coast of the United States? What finally 
becomes of this current? Trace with a pointer the main cur- 
rents of the North Pacific ocean. Describe their general shape. 
See the small black figures giving knots per hour, and give the 
velocity of the current in the region of northeast trades, 130 
degrees west ; in mid-ocean south of the Aleutian islands ; off 
the west coast of Oregon. 

Do you find indications in the Pacific ocean of a cold current 
from the Arctic regions ? What do you know of the tempera- 
ture of Vladivostok ? (See Fig. 4.) Compare its temperature 
in winter with that of Portland, Oregon. Compare the latitude 
of these two places. 




143 



144 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE LVII 
ICEBERGS 

Put a piece of ice in a vessel of cold water. Why does it float ? 
Which is heavier, a cubic foot of ice or a cubic foot of water? 
Define density. Which has the greater density, ice or water? 

Push the ice down so that it is entirely under water. Does 
it resist your pressure ? The force that tends to lift it up is 
called the buoyant force of water. Suppose that a glacier is pass- 
ing down a slope into the sea, so that the lower part is immersed 
in water. What force is thrusting it down into the sea? What 
force is tending to lift it up ? Explain how icebergs are formed 
from such a glacier. 

About what proportion of the floating ice is under water? 
Does it float with the broadest surface up or down ? Turn it 
over and see if you can make it float in another position. In 
how many positions can you make it float ? Suppose one side 
should melt away. What effect would this probably have upon 
the position of the ice in the water? Account for an iceberg's 
turning over in the sea. 

To find what proportion of a floating object is beneath the 
surface, divide its specific gravity by the specific gravity of 
the liquid. Dryer {Lessons in Physical G-eography, p. 255) gives 
the specific gravity of sea water as from 1.024 to 1.03, when 
at the temperature of 60 degrees. The specific gravity of sea 
ice is also given as .9175. Using the specific gravity first given 
for sea water, calculate what proportion of an iceberg is under 
water. Do the same, using the second specific gravity which is 
given above. What proportion is above water in each case ? Why 
should more than one specific gravity be given for sea water? 

Where do most of the icebergs of the North Atlantic ocean 
originate? What is the fate of those that float south? How 
far south do they ever go ? Describe the location of the line 
marking the limit of floating ice in the North Atlantic. (See 
Fig. 30.) What is the principal danger to ships cruising among 
icebergs ? 



THE SEA AM) MAN 145 

EXERCISE LVIII 

THE SEA AND MAN 

Part I 

Use a globe and string; place the string on the surface of 
the globe so as to connect with the shortest line the Galapagos 
islands and the island of Borneo. In which direction does this 
line extend? With what important mathematical line on the 
earth's surface does it almost coincide? If your string were 
extended so as to make a complete circle round the earth, 
would it make a great or a small circle ? 

San Francisco and Yokohama are in almost the same latitude. 
Connect these points on the globe with a string in such a way 
as to make the shortest line between them. In what direction 
does the line pass? Near what points on the earth's surface 
does it pass ? If this line were extended so as to make a complete 
circle round the earth, would it make a great or a small circle ? 
Does this circle coincide with any circle of latitude ? Compare 
this shortest line which you have drawn between San Francisco 
and Yokohama with the route actually taken by steamships 
plying between these two ports, as shown on the pilot chart 
of the North Pacific ocean. How would you find the shortest 
line between any two points on the earth's surface ? 

Part II 

Heat equal weights of water and rock to the same tempera- 
ture. Place them aside and allow them to cool. Which cools 
more quickly ? Cool equal weights of water and rock to a low 
temperature and place them in the direct sunlight. Which heats 
more quickly? Which gets hotter in summer, land or water? 
Which is more nearly uniform in temperature throughout the 
year? What effect does this fact have upon the climate of 
places near the sea or near a large lake? 




140 



THE SEA AND MAN 



147 



Part III 



Slowly boil a flask of sea water and condense the steam by 
passing it through a tube inclosed in a jacket of cold water. 
Taste the condensed vapor. Do you find salt in it? Ocean 
steamships are so equipped that they can supply drinking water 




Fig. 32. The Rocky Headland shown in the Distance in Fig. 31 
The detached rock island is called Sugai Loaf 

from sea water by distillation. Is water vapor which rises from 
the sea salt or fresh? If rain water were salt, how would vege- 
tation be affected? How does evaporation affect the density 
of the water in the sea? Name some bodies of water in which 
this is specially noticeable. 



Part IV 

Make a list of food products which are obtained from the 
sea. Make a list of other useful articles which are obtained 
from the sea. 



148 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



EXERCISE LIX 

HEADLANDS, BEACHES, SEA CAVES 

Fig. 31 is a picture of Avalon bay, Santa Catalina island, 
southern California. Fig. 32 is a detail of the same, showing 
the rocky headland at one side of the bay- Observe the bowlders 
lying in the foreground. Describe shape and size. What effect 
will action of the waves have upon the shape and size of these 




Fig. 33. Sea Caves at La Jolla (pronounced la-ho-yah), Coast of 
Southern California 

The cliff is sandstone 

bowlders ? How will the waves accomplish this ? Compare these 
bowlders with those shown in Fig. 38 and account for the dif- 
ference. What will finally be the fate of any bowlders con- 
stantly subjected to the action of the waves ? After the advance 
of a wave its waters return to the sea, bearing some rock waste 
with them. Rock waste of what sizes can be carried most readily 



HEADLANDS, BEACHES, SEA CAVES 



149 



by the waves ? What disposition will the sea make of material 
thus removed from the shore ? 

What agencies probably removed from the cliff the bowl- 
ders shown in Fig. 32 ? In times of storm the waves have 
sufficient force to pick up bowlders and bear them along, thus 
hurling them against the cliff. Which would probably prove 
the more destructive agent, waves alone or waves armed with 
bowlders, pebbles, 
and sand? Ob- 
serve the rock 
island, Sugar Loaf. 
It has been de- 
tached from the 
mainland by the 
attack of the sea. 
Predict the effects 
which the sea will 
yet produce upon 
the mainland. 
Fig. 33 shows a 
sandstone cliff at 
La Jolla on the 
coast of southern 
California. De- 
scribe the effects 




Fig. 34. Au Arch cut by Waves 



which the waves have produced here. Why has their attack 
been more effective in some parts of the cliff than in others? 
Sometimes fantastic forms result from the action of waves. 
Tell what you see in Fig. 34. What structure of the rocks 
makes this arch possible ? 

What condition of sea bottom is necessary to produce break- 
ers ? (See Topic 82, Waves, p. 35.) Judging from the fact that 
but one breaker appears on the shore in Fig. 32, would you 
think the sea is deep or shallow ? Is this characteristic of strong 
or weak coasts? Which part of the bay in Fig. 31 has the 
strongest coast? Which the weakest? This bay is what the 



150 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



books sometimes call a pocket beach. What can you see that is 
appropriate in this name ? It is sometimes called a crescent 

beach. Is this name 
equally appropriate? 
What difference would 
you expect to find in 
the size and the shape 
of the rock waste at 
the headland and mid- 
way between the two 
headlands ? 

If possible visit the 
coast. Observe sea 
cliffs, headlands, bowl- 
ders, pebbles, sand, 
beaches, sea caves, bars, 
spits, marshes, sea- 
weed, and other life 
along the shore, and 
anything else that you 
consider worthy of 
note. Make a map of 
the region which you 
have visited and let 
Illustrate with photo- 




Fig. 35. 



Map of Sand Reefs off the Coast 
of North Carolina 



your description be as full as possible, 
graphs or drawings whenever possible. 



EXERCISE LX 
BARRIER BEACHES 

Locate Atlantic City on a map of the United States. How 
far and in what direction is it from New York city ? Refer to 
the Atlantic City (N.J.) sheet. (Topographic map of the United 
States Geological Survey.) How much of the region shown 
on this sheet is mainland ? How high is it above sea level ? 
Describe the barrier beaches, giving their distance from the 



BARRIER BEACHES 



151 



mainland, direction of trend with reference to the mainland, 
height above sea level, width, and general shape. Compare 
them, in all respects named above, with the barrier beaches and 
bars represented on the map of the Atlantic coast from Beach 
Haven to Sandy Hook. (See the large map. 1 ) Also make a com- 
parison of these beaches and the bars or reefs represented on 
the maps of the coasts 
of North Carolina and 
southwestern Texas. 
(See Figs. 35 and 36.) 

How does the land 
lie between Atlantic 
City and the main- 
land? Describe the 
position of bays, chan- 
nels, and "thoro fares." 
Are these bodies of 
water becoming deeper 
or shallower? Give 
reason for your answer. 
What will finally be 
their fate ? What pre- 
vents the inlets from 
becoming filled with 

sand? (Read the description in Folio 1.) How is it possible 
to build railroads across this region? For what is Atlantic 
City famous? In what respects is it well located? Do you 
think of any disadvantages due to its location? 

Almost the entire region around Provincetown (Mass.) has 
been built up by the sea. (See the large map. 1 ) What do you 
think is the character of the soil? What evidence of the exist- 
ence of dunes do you find on this map ? What is done to check 
the migration of dunes? (See the government reports.) What 
use have men made of the peculiar shape of the coast line at 

1 Assembled topographic sheets of the United States Geological Survey, as 
shown on p. 170. 




Fig. 36. Sand Reefs off the Coast of Texas 



152 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Provincetown ? Do you think good harbors could be made on 
the east side of Cape Cod peninsula? Give reason for your 
answer. 

EXERCISE LXI 

DROWNED AND ELEVATED COASTS 

Refer to the Boothbay (Maine) sheet. (See topographic map 
of the United States Geological Survey.) This sheet represents 
a drowned coast. What does this mean ? Describe the shape of 
the inlets and the projecting lands. Measure the length of the 
coast in a straight line from Griffith Head to Pemaquid Point. 




Fig. 37. Terraces cut by the Sea at Point San Pedro, California, 
showing a Rising Coast 

Estimate the length of coast line between these two points, pass- 
ing around the bays but not entering the broad rivers. Char- 
acterize this coast line as straight or crooked. What land forms 
would result if Linekin neck should sink 100 feet? Are islands 
common on drowned coasts? What is the shape of the islands 
represented on this map? of the hills? Is there a general trend 
of the land forms? If so, in what direction? How is this 
accounted for? (See p. 4 of Folio 1.) 




153 



154 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Has this region known more of erosion or more of deposi- 
tion recently? Why was the surface eroded more deeply in 
some places than in others ? Are the rocks now composing the 
ridges probably hard or soft? Give reason for your answer. 
Why is it appropriate to call this a "stern and rock-bound 
coast -' ? 

It is said that a former channel of the Hudson river can be 
traced through New York bay several miles out into the ocean. 
What does this indicate as to the movement of the land at New 
York? Name another river on the Atlantic coast that has been 
drowned. Do drowned coasts always produce fiords ? When do 
they not ? Of what use to men are fiords and drowned rivers ? 
Name two notable examples of drowned rivers on the Pacific 
coast. What has been the movement of the land along the coast 
of southern California? (See Figs. 37 and 38.) Describe what 
you see in Fig. 38. How many elevated beaches or former shore 
lines can you count in Fig. 37 ? Compare the shape of the coast 
line from San Diego to San Pedro (Cal.) with that of the coast 
of Maine. How do rising coasts usually differ from sinking 
coasts ? 

EXERCISE LXII 
HARBORS 

Compare the number of natural harbors on the Atlantic coast 
of the United States north of Virginia with the number from 
Virginia to Florida. Account for the difference in number. 
How has the number of good harbors affected the growth of 
cities in the two regions ? 

What natural features have been utilized to form a harbor at 
New York (see map if necessary)? at Philadelphia? at Boston? 
at New Orleans ? at San Francisco ? at Seattle and Tacoma ? 
at Manila ? at Liverpool ? Do you know of other natural features 
which make good harbors ? 

Do you know of a port with an artificial harbor? What are 
some of the methods used in building artificial harbors ? Define 
breakwater ; dredge. 



ECONOMIC MINEKALS AND OEES 155 

EXERCISE LXIII 
ECONOMIC MINERALS AND ORES 

The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder. 

Some minerals are much harder than others. A series of ten 
has been selected, running from the softest to the hardest. This 
is called the scale of hardness. The hardness of rocks is usually 
given by number. Following is the scale : 

1. Tale. Very soft, can be scratched easily with the finger nail. 

2. Gypsum. Can be scratched with the finger nail, but not 
as easily as talc. 

3. Calcite. Cannot be scratched with the finger nail. Easily 
scratched with the point of a knife. 

4. Fluorite. Scratched with a knife, but not easily. 

5. Apatite. Not so easily scratched. 

6. Orthoclase. Can be scratched with difficulty with a knife 
blade. It will scratch glass. 

7. Quartz. Cannot be scratched with a knife. It will scratch 
glass. 

8. Topaz. Cannot be scratched by quartz. 

9. Corundum. Harder than topaz. 

10. Diamond. The hardest mineral. 

Examine each of the following minerals : pyrite, magnetite, 
hematite, limonite, cuprite, chalcopyrite, malachite, azurite, 
galenite (lead), gold, gypsum, asbestos, halite (salt), calcite. 
(The first four are forms of iron. The second four are forms of 
copper.) Make and fill a table similar to the accompanying one. 

1. Name of specimen. 

2. Use. 

3. Where found in the United States. 

4. Color. 

5. Streak. 

6. Hardness. 

7. Specific gravity. (Do not attempt to find the specific 
gravity of salt.) 

8. Remarks. 



156 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



If possible, visit one or more of the following places and 
write an account of what you see: (1) .a mine; (2) a smelter; 
(3) a foundry; (4) a shot tower; (5) a mint; (6) salt works. 

Note. Apply hydrochloric acid to calcite and describe the result. What 
other specimen have you had which acts in this way when hydrochloric 
acid is applied? (See Exercise LII.) Calcite is the essential constituent 
of this rock, as it is of limestone and marble. 

EXERCISE LXIV 



LIMESTONE 

Describe coquina limestone. Tell where it comes from. How 
do you suppose it was formed ? Describe the specimen of fos- 
siliferous limestone. Tell where it comes from. Make a draw- 
ing of one of the 
fossils. Give your 
drawing a title. 
Draw or describe 
different varieties 
of coral. Where 
are corals found ? 
Are they found in 
sufficiently large 
quantities to be 
counted as build- 
ers of rocks? (See 
Fig. 39.) Do you 
know of other fos- 
sils which make 
limestone ? If so, 
describe or draw 
them. Limestone 
has been called 




Fig. 39. A Church built of Coral, at Lahaina, 
Hawaiian Islands 



the graveyard of the sea. What is there in this name which is 
appropriate? Where is chalk found? Describe color, texture, 
hardness, use. 



COAL 157 

Distinguish between chalk and crayon. Test limestone with 
hydrochloric acid. What mineral have you proved to be pres- 
ent? (See Exercise LXIII.) This mineral is the essential con- 
stituent of limestone. Add acid to a very small piece of 
limestone or to a small quantity of powdered limestone until 
all effervescence ceases. Does the rock entirely disappear? If 
not, it is not pure limestone. How do you account for the 
presence of impurities ? 

What is limestone used for? What gas is obtained from 
limestone? How is this gas sometimes used? Apply the acid 
test to marble. How does marble differ in appearance from 
limestone ? Do you find any fossils in marble ? How may fos- 
sils disappear from a rock while it is still underground ? 

EXERCISE LXV 
COAL 

Examine peat. Give color. Make a mental estimate of its 
specific gravity, and record. Describe the structure of peat. 
Give a theory of its formation, either your own or that of the 
books. If your own, give reasons for adhering to this theory ; 
if not your own, state where you got it. Of what value is peat? 
Where did this specimen come from? Do you know of any 
near your home? 

Examine coal. Give color. Estimate specific gravity and 
compare with that of peat. Do you find any evidence of the 
existence of vegetable matter in coal? If so, draw one or more 
forms which you see. Give your drawing a title. How do the 
books explain the formation of coal? In what parts of the 
United States is it found? In what part is it found in largest 
quantities? Name two or three kinds of coal and compare their 
values for fuel. From what places does your local supply of 
coal come? Which is considered best? Why? 

Describe color, structure, and " feel " of graphite. Where is it 
found? For what is it used? Graphite is made up of carbon. 



158 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



Carbon is found in both coal and peat. It is also found in the 
leaves and stems of plants and trees. 

Put a piece of peat on a metal plate and heat it slowly over 
the Bunsen burner. What change in color do you note? The 
most common color of carbon is black. Peat is often some color 
other than black because constituents are present other than 
carbon. The heat drives off these constituents and there remains 
little but carbon. Why is a charred stick of wood black? Apply 
heat to the piece of peat until it glows, and allow it to remain 

















i . . ■' V'- 






:-W 


s lj& A^i 


tt*ys£ 




> .■ jBBKaHH^^BfcL 


32S7 1 'ffiaBwiBHI 










■ X / 








XV'.- 
\jfc, X - 







Fig. 40. A Petrified Tree spanning a Gulch in the Petrified Forest of 
Arizona. (See Topic 98, Fossils, p. 41) 

thus for several minutes. What change do you note? What 
constituent of the atmosphere is probably uniting with the 
peat? (See Exercise XL) Carbon is found in all fuel, includ- 
ing kerosene, gasoline, and gas. What constituent of the air 
unites with it when it burns ? This forms carbon dioxide. 
What do you know about the healthfulness of this gas? Did 
you ever hear of a person being suffocated from the fumes of a 
smoldering fire? Why should a gas or oil stove be connected 
with the flue ? 



GEANITE 159 

What is the color of the soil in a bog? Where does the 
coloring matter probably come from ? Black slate owes its color 
to carbon. Pulverize and heat intensely hot a small amount of 
black slate, thus burning out the carbon. What is the color of 
the powder which remains? If it is red or brown, what other 
mineral was probably present in the slate? (See Exercise XI.) 



EXERCISE LXVI 

GRANITE 

Part I 

Examine specimens of granite, quartz, feldspar, mica, horn- 
blende. Make and fill a table similar to the following. 

1. Name of specimen. 

2. Color. 

3. Hardness. 

4. Structure. 

5. Use. 

6. Other kinds. 

7. Remarks. 

How can you distinguish between calcite and quartz? be- 
tween quartz and feldspar? between feldspar and hornblende? 
between feldspar and mica? between mica and gypsum of the 
selenite variety? (Note the elasticity of the flakes.) 

When pure feldspar decays it makes a very fine clay called 
kaolin. Examine and describe kaolin. How can you distinguish 
between kaolin and chalk? 

Part II 

Examine and describe the surface of a freshly fractured piece 
of granite. Give color, structure, and components of the piece 
which you have. Which component is found in greatest abun- 
dance? Which least abundantly? Is granite found near your 
home ? 



160 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Examine crumbling granite. How many and what compo- 
nents can you discover? How does this specimen differ from 
solid granite ? What component seems to have suffered greatest 
decay? Put a small amount of highly decomposed granite in 
water. Which components settle to the bottom? Which com- 
ponent makes the water muddy? Which component is practi- 
cally indestructible ? What becomes of all of the grains of this 
material when granite decays ? Look for small grains of mica 
in the sand of a flowing stream. Does decomposed granite make 
good soil? Does decomposed feldspar make good soil? 



EXERCISE LXVII 
FRAGMENTAL ROCKS 

Describe size and shape of the fragments composing breccia. 
These fragments lay at the base of a cliff. Water seeping from 
the face of the cliff percolated through them. What do you 
suppose that had to do with the process of cementing the frag- 
ments together? Test and name the material forming the 
cement. Are all the interstices filled ? Look closely for crystals. 

Examine the pebbles from the beach. Describe size, color, 
shape. Compare the shape with the shape of the fragments of 
breccia and account for the difference. 

Examine the cementing material between the fragments of 
the conglomerate. Do you find evidence of the presence of iron 
in the cement of any of the specimens of conglomerate ? If so, 
what evidence? Test the cement for lime and record the result. 
Compare the fragments of conglomerate with the pebbles exam- 
ined above. 

Examine and describe color and structure of sandstone. 
Determine, if possible, of what kind of fragments it is com- 
posed. The common cements in sandstone are lime, iron, and 
clay. In which of your specimens do you find lime as a cement? 
In which iron ? In which clay ? In which do you find two kinds 
of cement present? 




Fig. 41. A Young Fir Tree growing from a Crack in a Mass of Granite 




Fig. 42. A Weir on the Truckee River, Nevada, for measuring 
Water used for Irrigation 



101 



162 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Shale is a fragmental rock. Can you readily see the frag- 
ments ? Account for the color of the specimen which you have. 
(See Exercise LXV.) 

Fragmental rocks are usually built under the water, and the 
materials of which they are composed are furnished by rivers 
and by the action of waves. Which of the fragmental rocks 




Fig. 43. A Flume near Redlands, California, used for carrying Water 
for Irrigation from Bear Lake. (See Fig. 21) 

would probably be formed nearest the shore? Which is com- 
posed of materials that the water would carry farthest before 
depositing them ? Arrange the fragmental rocks in a series, 
putting that first which was deposited nearest the shore and 
the others in the order of their deposition. 



BUILDING STONE 163 

EXERCISE LXVIII 
BUILDING STONE 

What kinds of stone are used for building in your vicinity? 
Which is considered best? Why? Are the same kinds used for 
foundations? If not, why? What kinds are used for interior 
decoration ? Could these be used for exterior decoration as well ? 
Which of these rocks are quarried or obtained near your home? 
Where do the others come from? 

How is slate used in building? Could granite be used for 
the same purpose? Give reason for your answer. If blocks of 
stratified rocks were to be used in a wall, should they be placed 
with the layers horizontal or vertical? Why? 

Did you ever see an old stone building with the surfaces 
of the stones crumbling? Why do they crumble? What kind 
of building stone crumbles least? Why? Is a dry or a moist 
climate more favorable for the preservation of a stone build- 
ing? Do vines clinging to the surface of a stone wall cause 
the wall to weather more or less rapidly than it otherwise 
would ? 

Examine the following rocks : granite, red sandstone, gray 
sandstone, limestone, marble, slate. Make and till a table simi- 
lar to the following. (In addition to your observations, seek 
information from property owners, contractors, stone masons, 
and others.) 

1. Name of stone. 

2. Color. 

3. Ease with which it can be worked. 

4. Durability. 

5. Use. 

6. Source of local supply 

7. Remarks. 



164 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

EXERCISE LXIX 
DECOMPOSING AGENTS 

Part I 

What effect does heat have upon brass and iron ? (See Exer- 
cise XXXI.) To ascertain whether they are equally affected, 
heat a bar consisting of one brass plate and one iron plate. 
What change of shape do you observe ? Which plate expands 
more upon being heated? Feldspar and quartz expand une- 
qually when heated. What effect will change of temperature 
probably have upon the texture of granite? Will a granite 
monument endure longer in a climate of uniform or changeable 
temperature? 

Part II 

Examine granite having a growth of lichens on the surface. 
Which would dry more quickly if thoroughly wet, a piece of 
granite with a covering of lichens or a piece without lichens ? 
(If in doubt, try it.) How will this affect the rate of weather- 
ing of granite ? How do lichens cling to the granite ? Will 
this aid or retard weathering? The decay of the roots makes 
an acid which the water carries into the granite. Will the 
presence of this acid aid or retard weathering? 

Part III 

Write a paper telling how each of the following aids in the 
process of rock decay. 

1. Oxidation. (See Exercise XI. i 

2. Vegetation and roots. 

3. Burrowing animals. 

4. Water. (See Exercise LII.) 

5. Rivers, waves, glaciers. (See Exercises XXXII and 
LIX.) 



IRRIGATION 165 

EXERCISE LXX 

IRRIGATION 

Write a paper on one or more of the following phases of 
irrigation. 

1. Irrigation in the United States. 

2. Extent of irrigation. 

3. Antiquity of irrigation. 

4. Methods of elevating water for irrigation. 

5. Methods of storing water for irrigation. 

6. Methods of distributing water for irrigation. 

7. Methods of measuring water for irrigation. 

8. Losses of water in irrigation. 

(State books read and authorities consulted in writing your 
paper.) 




166 



APPENDIX 



LIST OF TEXT-BOOKS 

Davis, Physical Geography. Ginn & Company. 1899. 

Davis, Elementary Physical Geography. Ginn & Company. 
1902. 

Dryer, Lessons In Physical Geography. American Book Company. 
1901. 

Gilbert and Brigham, An Introduction to Physical Geography. 
D. Appleton & Co. 1902. 

Redway, Elementary Physical Geography. Charles Scribner's 
Sons. 1900. 

Tarr, New Physical Geography. The Macmillan Company. 1904. 

LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS 

Bailey, Principles of Agriculture. Macmillan. $1.25. 

Beal, Seed Dispersal. Ginn. 50 cents. 

Bergen, Foundations of Botany. Ginn. $1.50. 

Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History. Ginn. 
$1.75. 

California Water and Forest Association, Should the Forests be 
Preserved/ California Water and Forest Association, Mills Build- 
ing, San Francisco. FYee. 

Coulter, Plant Studies. Appleton. $1.25. 

Crosby, Common Minerals and Pocks. Heath. 40 cents. 

Davis, Elementary Meteorology. Ginn. $2.50. 

Dodge, A Reader in Physical Geography for Beginners. Long- 
mans. 70 cents. 

Fairbanks, Rocks and Minerals. Educational Publishing Com- 
pany. 00 cents. 

Fairbanks, Western United States. Heath. 60 cents. 

1(57 



168 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Garriott, Long-Range Weather Forecasts. Bulletin No. 322, United. 
States Weather Bureau. 

Gifford, Practical Forestry. Appleton. $1.00. 

Harrington, About the Weather. Appleton. 60 cents. 

Heilprin, The Earth and Its Story. Silver. $1.00. 

Jordan, Science Sketches. McClurg. $1.50. 

Jordan and Kellogg, Animal Life. Appleton. $1.20. 

Kenealy, Weather Bureau Stations and their Duties. United States 
Weather Bureau. Free. 

King, Irrigation and Drainage. Macmillan. $1.50. 

King, The Soil. Macmillan. 75 cents. 

Kinney, Forest and Water. Post Publishing Company, Los 
Angeles. $1.50. 

Mead, Irrigation Institutions. Macmillan. $1.25. 

Merriam, Life Zones, and Crop Zones of the United States. Bul- 
letin No. 10, United States Biological Survey. Free. 

Moore, Bacteria and the Nitrogen Problem. Reprint from Year 
Book of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1902. Free. 

Moore, Climate, Its Physical Basis and Controlling Factors. Bul- 
letin No. 34, United States Department of Agriculture. (Weather 
Bureau.) Free. 

Muir, Mountains of California. Century Company. $1.50. 

Newcomb, Elements of Astronomy. American Book Company. 
$1.00. 

Osterhout, Experiments with Plants. Macmillan. $1.25. 

Pinchot, Primer of Forestry, Parts I and II. Bulletin No. 24, 
Parts I and II, United States Bureau of Forestry. Free. 

Roth, A First Book of Forestry. Ginn. 75 cents. 

Russell, Glaciers of North America. Ginn. $2.00. 

Russell, Lakes of North America. Macmillan. $1.50. 

Russell, North America. Appleton. $2.50. 

Russell, Rivers of North America. Putnam. $2.00. 

Russell, Volcanoes of North America. Macmillan. $4.00. 

Shaler, Aspects of the Earth. Scribner. $2.50. 

Shaler, First Book in Geology. Heath. - 45 cents. 

Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History. Appleton. $1.75. 

Shaler, Sea and Land. Scribner. $2.50. 

Shaler, Story of Our Continent. Ginn. 75 cents. 



APPENDIX 



169 



Tarr, Economic Geology of the United States. Macmillan. $3.50. 
Tarr, Elementary Geology. Macmillan. $1.40. 
Tourney, Relation of Forests to Stream Flow. Reprint from Year 
Book of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1903. Free. 
Waldo, Elementary Meteorology. American Book Company. $1.50. 




Fig. 45. Pupils' Work Table in the Laboratory 

Height, 36 inches ; width, 48 inches ; length, 12 feet. Knee space, 18 inches 
wide; stool, 24 inches in height 

Ward, Report on the Petrified Forests of Arizona. United States 
Department of the Interior. 

Westgate, Reclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes. Bulletin No. 
65, United States Department of Agriculture. (Bureau of Plant 
Industry.) 

Winchell, Walks and Talks in the Geological Field. Jacobs. 
$1.00. 

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture. American Book Company. 
60 cents. 

Young, Lessons in Astronomy. Ginn. $1.25.- 



170 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



LIST OP GOVERNMENT MAPS 

Topographic Atlas, United States Geological Survey, Folio No. 1 ; 
25 cents. Same, Folio No. 2 ; 25 cents. 

Canyon (Wyo.) sheet, topographic map of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey ; 3 cents wholesale. 1 

Doylestown (Penn.) sheet, topographic map of the United States 
Geological Survey ; 3 cents. 

Assembled topographic sheets, showing plateau and divides of 
the Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, as follows : Gallatin, 
Canyon, Shoshone, Lake ; 4 sheets, 3 cents each. 

Assembled topographic sheets, showing Green Bay (Wis.) lobe of 
ancient glacier as follows : Madison, Sun Prairie, Waterloo, Water- 
town, Oconomowoc, Waukesha, Milwaukee^ Evansville, Stoughton, 
Koshkonong, Whitewater, Eagle, Muskego, Bay View, Brodhead, 
Janesville, Shopiere, Delavan, Geneva, Silver Lake, Racine; 21 
sheets, 3 cents each. 

Assembled topographic sheets, showing barrier beaches off the 
coast of New Jersey, as follows : Sandy Hook, Asbury Park, 
Barnegat, Long Beach, Little Egg Harbor, Atlantic City ; 6 sheets, 
6 cents each. 

Assembled topographic sheets, showing Cape Cod (Mass.), as 
follows : Provincetown, Wellfleet, Chatham, Yarmouth ; 4 sheets, 
3 cents each. 

Pilot charts of the North Atlantic ocean, United States Coast 
and Geodetic Survey ; 10 cents each. Same, North Pacific ocean ; 
10 cents each. 

Tide Tables for Pacific (or Atlantic) ports for current year, 
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey ; 10 cents. 

Map showing magnetic declination in the United States, United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

United States Coast and Geodetic Survey maps (50 cents each), as 
follows : 

1 The Geological Survey uses the term wholesale to include lots of one hundred 
or more maps pmxhased at one time. The wholesale price of topographic maps 
is given in each case. Single maps cost 5 cents. 



APPENDIX 



171 



109 Boston bay. 

110 Cape Cod bay. 
120 New York bay. 

194 and 195 Mississippi river to New Orleans. 
5100 San Diego to Santa Monica. 
5581 San Francisco entrance. 




Fig. 46. Teacher's Cabinet Table in the Laboratory 

Large drawers at the right, to receive large maps lying flat, 48 X 48 X 6 inches; 
upper drawers at the left, to receive topographic maps (with partitions for 
mineral and other specimens), 22 X 22 X 5 inches; lower drawers at the left, 
to receive larger specimens and the smaller pieces of apparatus, 22 X 10 X 10 
inches 

Weather Bureau publications, as follows : 

Daily weather map from Washington ; free. 
Daily weather map from local station ; free. 
Average annual precipitation in the United States (with 
maps), a reprint from the Monthly Weather Review for 
April, 1902. 
Wall map of the United States, United States Department of the 
Interior: $1.00. 



172 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

LIST OF APPARATUS AND SUPPLIES 

Note. This list includes only such apparatus and supplies as are. 
specifically referred to in Part II of this manual. It will be observed that 
a large part is probably already in the possession of the average high 
school, and, if necessary, the teacher of physical geography can draw upon 
the departments of physics, chemistry, mathematics, and geology for 
these things. 

Gyroscope (may be homemade), 8-inch globe with movable 
meridian, pasteboard circle to fit globe, wet and dry bulb ther- 
mometer, maximum and minimum thermometer, barometer, rain 
gauge, slated globe. 

Rotating machine with brass rings, specific-gravity balances and 
box of weights, Bunsen burner, blowpipe, air pump, apparatus and 
materials for generating oxygen, same for generating carbon dioxide, 
pneumatic trough, steel wool, watch crystals, ether, alcohol, tri- 
angular glass prism, bar magnet, mounted magnetic needle, Torri- 
cellian tubes, mercury, test tubes, beaker, rubber stoppers, glass 
tubing, adjustable pinchcock, mortar and pestle, evaporating dish, 
funnel, filter paper, hydrochloric acid, apparatus for distilling 
water, hydrometer. 

Lead bullet, string, old electric-light bulb, empty bottles, candle, 
corks, tumbler with straight sides, V-shaped trough, teakettle, yard- 
stick, brightly polished metal cup, ice, glass jar with straight sides, 
soap, mirror, box of tacks, blocks of wood, pointer, sand, lever with 
wire and rubber band, salt, clay, sand, gravel, alum, photographers' 
hypo, sea water. 

Mineral and rock specimens, about forty different kinds, suffi- 
cient in number to supply pupils of largest class when working 
in pairs. 



INDEX 



Abrasion, 20 

Absolute humidity, 6, 7, 71 
Alluvial cones, 23, 112 
Ancient glaciers, 29, 128 
Angle of inclination of earth's axis, 
4, 63 

of noon elevation of sun, 5, 61 
Animals, 46-51 

changes in, 48 

distribution of, 47 

economic value of, 49 

migrations of, 47 
Anticyclones, 10, 83-92 
Apparatus, list of, 172 
Argentina, rainfall of, 93 
Artesian wells, 33 
Assembled topographic sheets, 117, 

128, 151, 170 
Assorting power of water, 20, 105 
Atlantic City (N.J.) topographic sheet, 

150 
Atmosphere, 6-8 

constituents of, 6, 67 

general movements of, 9, 87 

physical properties of, 6, 66 

saturated, 6, 7, 70, 72 

weight and pressure of, 6, 9, 66 
Atmospheric pressure, 9, 66 
Axis of the earth, 4, 58 

Bad lands, 21 
Barometer, 9, 83-92 

movements of low, 10, 91 
Barrier beaches, 38, 150 
Barriers to migration, 47, 48 
Base level of erosion, 23, 24, 119 
Basins, drainage, 24, 120 

interior, 31, 133-135 



Beaches, 38, 149, 150 
Beheading of a stream, 24, 121 
Boothbay (Me.) topographic sheet, 152 
Building stone, 43, 163 
Buttes, 21 

Calms, 9, 87, 97, 98 

Canyon of the Yellowstone, 117 

Canyon (Wyo.) topographic sheet. 107, 

114 
Canyons, 21 

Capacity for water vapor, 70, 71 
Carbon, 40, 41, 157, 158, 159 
Carbon dioxide, 68, 136, 137, 158 
Cardinal points, 60 
Caverns, 32, 137 
Centrifugal force, 57 
Centripetal force, 57 
Charleston (W. Va.) topographic sheet, 

117 
Chile, rainfall of, 93 
Circle of illumination, 59 
Clay, 44, 105, 159, 160 
Climate, 13-15 

changes of, 14 

factors of, 13 

relation of, to life, 15 

zones of, 13, 96 
Climatic regions of the United States, 

14, 97, 98 
Clinometer, 61 
Clouds, 7 
Coal, 40, 41, 157 
Coast forms, 37-39 
Coast outlines and civilization, 39 
Coastal plains, 18 
Coasts, drowned and elevated, 152 

rising and 'sinking, 38 



173 



174 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



Colorado river, 24, 25, 134, 135 

Colors of sky, 75, 70 

Combustion, 67, 68 

Compass, 76 

Condensation, 6, 69 

Cones, alluvial, 23, 112 

Consequent streams, 131 

Continental glaciers, 28, 128 

Continental outlines, 37 

Contour interval, 99 

Contour lines, 19, 99 

Contour maps, 19, 101 

Coral reefs, 30 

Corrasion, 20 

Crater, 26, 126 

Crater lake (Ore.) special topographic 

sheet, 126 
Creep, 19 

Crescent beaches, 37, 38, 1-50 
Crevasse, glacial, 28 

in a levee, 22, 108 
Crystals, 136 
Cucamonga (Cal.) topographic sheet, 

112 
Currents, 35, 142 
Cyclones, 10, 88-91 

forward movements of, 91 

precipitation in, 89 

temperatures in, 90 

tropical, 11 

winds in, 88 

Day and night, length of, 4, 59 
Dead sea, 135 
Debris cones, 23, 112 
Declination, magnetic, 77 
Decomposing agents, 43, 104 
Deltas, 23 

Density of sea water, 34, 139 
Deserts, 29 
Dew, 7, 71, 72 

Disintegration and erosion, 19-21 
Dismal swamp, 133 
Distribution of animals and plants, 47 
of man, 51 



Divides, migration of, 24, 120 

Doldrums, 87 

Donaldson ville (La.) topographic sheet, 

107 
Doylestown (Pa. ) topographic sheet, 120 
Drainage, imperfect, 30-31, 115 

perfect, 23, 118 
Drainage areas of the United States, 24, 

120 
Drowned coasts, 38, 152 
Drumlins, 29, 128 
Dunes, 29, 151 

Eagle (Wis.) topographic sheet, 129 
Earth among planets, 3-0 

as a whole, 15 

direction of axis of, 4, 58 

form of, 4, 56 

motions of, 4 

movements of crust of, 16 

structure of, 15-19 
Earthquakes, 27 
Economic importance of animals, 49 

of atmosphere, 6 

of building stone, 43, 163 

of climate, 15, 96 

of coast lines, 39 

of deserts, 29 

of fertilizers, 45 

of forests, 45, 49 

of geography, 50 

of irrigation, 45, 165 

of magnetism, 8, 76, 77 

of minerals, 39, 155, 157 

of mountains, 18 

of plants, 49 

of rivers, 25 

of sand dunes, 30 

of the sea, 36, 145-147 

of snow, 7 

of soil, 44 

of topography, 108, 111, 118, 119, 
120 

of volcanoes, 26 

of weather, 1 1 



INDEX 



/ >J 



Electricity, 8 
Elevated coasts, 88, 152 
Equinox, 50, 05 
Erosion, 19-21 

base level of, 119 
Evaporation, 6, 69, 136, 137 
Evening and morning glow, 76 
Extinct lakes,' 31, 134 
Extinct volcanoes, 123, 126 

Fans, alluvial, 23, 112 

Fertilizers, 45 

Fiords, 152 

Floes, 36 

Flood plains, 22, 107 

Fog, 7 

Forestry as related to soil, 45 

Forests, 49 

Fossils, 41, 156 

Fragmental rocks, 42, 100 

Freezing mixture, 104 

Frost, 7 

Gas, 41 

Geographical factors in the life of civi- 
lized peoples, 50 
Geysers, 33 
Glaciation, topographic forms due to, 

29, 128 
Glaciers, alpine, 27, 127, 128 

ancient, 29, 128-131 

continental, 28 

on Mt. Shasta, 127 

piedmont, 28 
Grand river, 113 
Granite, 42, 159 
Gravity, 57, 140 
Great plains, rainfall of, 93 
Great Salt lake, 31, 134 
Ground water. 82-34, 135-188 
Gulf of California, 134 
Gulf stream, 142 
Gyroscope, 58 

Hachurts, 19. 99 



Hail, 7 

Harbors, 39, 154 
Hardness of a mineral, 155 
Headlands, 37, 148 
Heat, 68, 69, 70, 104, 101 
High barometer, 10, 83-92 
Humidity, 6, 70 
Hurricanes, 11 

Ice, 104, 144 

Icebergs, 36, 144 

Igneous rocks, 42 

Insolation, 8, 9 

Interior basins, 31 

Iron, 39, 40, 68, 69, 155, 159 

Irrigation, 45, 105 

Islands, 37 

Isobars, 9, 83 

Isohyetals, 93 

Isotherms, 8, 77, 82 

Kanawha river, 117 

Lagoons, 23 
hakes, 30, 131 

extinct, 81, 184 

salt, 31 
Land breeze, 12 
Lands, 15 
Landslides, 27 
Latitude, 5, 05 
Lava, 20, 123 
Levee, 107, 108 
Life, conditions of, 40 
Light, 8, 74 
Limestone, 40, 41, 156 
Load of a stream, 20 
Longitude, 5 
Low barometer, 10, 83-91' 

Magnetic declination, 77 
Magnetism, 8, 76 
Man, 46-51 

and nature, 50 

distribution of, 51 



176 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



Man, races of, 51 

Maps, assembled topographic, 117, 128, 
151, 170 

contour, 19, 100, 101 

government, 170 

hachure, 19, 100 
Marshall (Mo.) topographic sheet, 110 
Marshes, 30 
Mature region, 117 
Meanders, 23, 110 
Merced river, 108 
Mesas, 21 

Metamorphic rocks, 42 
Migration of plants and animals, 47, 
48 

of divides, 24, 120 

of waterfalls, 106, 115 
Minerals and rocks, 39-43, 155-164 
Mississippi river, 24, 25, 107 
Missouri river, 24, 25, 110 
Moon, 5, 64, 140 
Moraines, 28, 127, 129 
Mt. Mazama, 126 
Mt. Shasta, 127 
Mt. Taylor (N.M.) topographic sheet, 

123 
Mountains, causes of, 16 

economic aspects of, 18 

kinds of, 17 

life history of, 17 



Organically formed rocks, 40, 156, 157 
Oxbows, 23 
Oxidation, 68 
Oxygen, 67 

Percolating water, 32 
Petroleum, 41 
Piedmont glaciers, 28 
Plains, 18 
Planets, 3, 55 
Plant zones, 47 
Plants, 46, 51 

changes in, 48 

economic value of, 49 

migrations and barriers, 47 
Plateaus, 18 

ancient, 118, 119 

of Yellowstone park, 117 

volcanic, 123 
Pocket beach, 37, 38, 150 
Pressure, atmospheric, 9, 66 
Profile from contour map, 102 

from hypsometric map of United 
States, 98 

Races of mankind, 51 

Rain, 7 

Rainbow, 8, 75 

Rainfall, 10, 13, 93, 95, 96, 98 

in cyclones and anticyclones, 10, 



Natural gas, 41 

Nature and man, 50 

Nitrogen, 67 

Noon, 61 

Norfolk (Va.) topographic sheet, 133 

North and south line, 60 

North star, 58, 60 

Ocean, 32-36 
life in, 36 
Ocean currents, 35-142 
Ocean water, 34 
Old region, 119 
Ores, 39, 155 



in equatorial regions, 96 

on the Pacific coast, 93, 98 
Range of temperature, 13, 97 

of tides, 35, 140 
Rapids, 21 
Reefs, coral, 30 

sand, 150, 151 
Reference books, 167 
Refraction, 8, 74 
Region in maturity, 23, 117 

in old age, 23, 119 

in youth, 23, 114 
Relative humidity, 6, 7, 71, 73 
Relief, representation of, 19, 98-102 



INDEX 



177 



Revolution of earth, 4, 59 

of moon, 64 
River piracy, 24, 121 

systems, 24 
Rivers, 21-25 

economic importance of, 25 

life history of, 23, 120 

typical, 24 
Rock waste, 19-21, 105 
Rocks, disintegration of, 19 

fragmental, 42, 160 

igneous, 42 

metamorphic, 42 

organically formed, 40, 156, 157 

volcanic, 26, 12-'! 
Rotation of earth, 4, 57, 58 

Sailing routes, 87, 88, 145 
Salt lakes, 31, 134 
Salton sea, 134 
Sand dunes, 29 
Scale of hardness, 155 
Sea, and man, 36, 145 

bottom, 34 

breeze, 12 

caves, 37, 38, 149 

encroachment of, 37, 148-150, 
152, 154 

encroachment on, 38, 150-154 

•water, 34, 139 
Seasons of the year, 4, 5, 59 
Sedimentary rocks, 42, 160 
Shasta (Cal.) special topographic sheet, 

127 
Sky, color of, 8, 75, 76 

evening and morning glow of, 8, 
76 
Snow, 7 
Soil as affected by forests, 45 

fertility of, 44 

kinds of, 44 

residual, 19 
Soils, 43-46 
Solar system, 3, 55 
Solids in solution, 32, 33, 135 



Solstice, 59 

Solution, 135 

Soundings, 34 

Specific gravity, 122, 123, 144, 155, 157 

Spectrum, 8, 75 

Springs, 32 

Stalactites, 32, 137 

Stars, distances of, from earth, 3, 56 

Storms, 8-12 

Stratitird rocks, 42, 160 

Streak of a mineral, 155 

Struggle for existence, 48, 49 

Sun, 5, 61 

Sun Prairie (Wis.) topographic sheet, 

128 
Sunrise and sunset curves, 63 
Swamps, 30, 133 

Talus, 19 
Temperature, 8 

average, 77 

range of, 97 
Terraces, 22 
Text-books, 167 
Thunderstorms, 12 
Tides, 35, 140 
Topographic maps, 170 
Tornadoes, 11 
Trade winds, 10, 87 
Tropical cyclones, 11 

Underground waters, 32-34, 135-138 

Valleys, 22 

Veins, 33, 137 

Volcanic peaks, plateaus, and necks, 

26, 123 
Volcanic phenomena, 26 
Volcanic rocks, 26, 123 
Volcanoes, extinct, 123, 126 
typical, 25 

Water vapor, 6, 7, 69-74 
Waterfalls, 21, 106 
Waves, 35 



178 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 

Weather forecasting, 11, 9-2 Yellowstone river, 107, 114 

Weather maps, 171 > Yellowstone (Wyo.) topographic sheet, 

Weather observations, 86 107, 114 

Weathering, 43, 44, 102 Young region, 114 

and soils, 43-46 

Winds, 8-12, 87 Zones of climate, 13, 96 

local, 12 of vegetation surrounding a lake, 

westerly, 87 133 



NOTEBOOK 



INSTRUCTIONS TO PUPILS 

Make a neat, clean-looking page. 

Answer all questions, making complete sentences. 

Do what you are asked to do and state in writing what you 
did. Your sentences should not be imperative. 

Do not hesitate to use the pronouns Zand we when necessary. 
In class experiments the impersonal form is generally preferable. 

Make as many paragraphs in your written notes as there are 
in the printed instructions. 

Your notes should be an exposition of the subject treated, so 
that they will make clear reading without reference to the 
printed instructions. 

In general, statements of what you did should be in the past 
tense ; statements of scientific or general truths, in the present 
tense. 




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